*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75302 ***
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[Illustration: PLATE I. INDIGO DYED BATIK FROM MADRAS]
DYES _and_ DYEING
BY
CHARLES E. PELLEW
_Formerly Adjunct Professor of Chemistry
at Columbia University_
[Illustration: (colophon)]
NEW YORK
ROBERT M. McBRIDE & COMPANY
1918
COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY
McBRIDE, NAST & COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY
ROBERT M. McBRIDE & COMPANY
New and enlarged edition
Published, January, 1918
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER I—INTRODUCTION 5
Dyes of the Ancients—Dyes of Our Ancestors—Animal, Vegetable and
Mineral Dyes—Outfit for Practical Dyeing.
CHAPTER II—MODERN DYESTUFFS 40
Discovery of the Aniline or Coal-Tar Colors—Their Properties and
Uses—How Obtained—How Named—Classification of Coal-Tar Colors for
Craftsmen.
CHAPTER III—THE DIRECT COTTON OR SALT COLORS 53
Discovery, Properties and Uses of the Salt Colors; with Lists of
Selected Dyestuffs, and Dying Directions for Cotton and Linen—
Fastness to Light and Washing—After-treatment.
CHAPTER IV—THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COLOR DYEING 71
Even and Shaded Dyeing with the Primary Colors—Experiments with
Secondary Colors—Matching Shades.
CHAPTER V—THE SULPHUR COLORS 85
Discovery—Properties and Uses of the Sulphur Colors—List of
Selected Dyestuffs, and Dyeing Directions for Cotton and Linen.
CHAPTER VI—THE INDIGO OR VAT COLORS 91
Natural and Synthetic Indigo—Properties and Application—Vat Dyeing,
Old and Modern—Dyeing Directions—The Modern Vat Colors—Their
Properties and Uses—Selected Dyestuffs—Fastness to Light and
Washing—Dyeing Directions for Cotton, Linen and Silk.
CHAPTER VII—THE BASIC COLORS 108
History, Properties, and Application to Cotton, Wool, Silk,
etc.—Disadvantages—Not Fast to Light—Dyeing Directions for Straw,
Raffia, etc.
CHAPTER VIII—THE ACID COLORS 123
History, Properties, Uses, and List of Selected Dyestuffs—Dyeing
Directions for Wool.
CHAPTER IX—DYEING FEATHERS 131
The Dye-bath—The Dyeing Method—The Finishing Process—Dry and
Wet Starching—Dyeing in the Starch—Black Dyeing of Feathers—
Painting Feathers.
CHAPTER X—LEATHER AND LEATHER DYEING 141
History—Preparation of Leather—Oil, Mineral and Bark Tanning—
Dyeing, Staining and Finishing Leather.
CHAPTER XI—SILK I 156
History, Origin and Varieties of Silk—Preparing Silk for Dyeing—
Piece Dyeing—Skein Dyeing—Dyeing Wild Silks.
CHAPTER XII—SILK II 168
Black Dyeing of Silk—Coal-Tar Colors—Logwood—Weighting of Silk—
Properties and Tests for Weighted Silk—Dyeing Silk with Colors
Fast to Washing.
CHAPTER XIII—IMITATION AND ARTIFICIAL SILK 181
History, Preparation and Properties of Mercerized Cotton—History,
Preparation and Properties of Artificial Silk—Precautions to be
Taken in Dyeing and Finishing.
CHAPTER XIV—TIED AND DYED WORK 192
As Used in South America, India, Philippines and U.S.—Variations
in Tying Process—How Dyed—Tied and Discharged Work.
CHAPTER XV—STENCILS AND STENCILLING 211
Japanese Practice—U.S. Practice—Knives, Brushes, Paper, etc.—
Colors for Leather, Silk, and Cotton—Stencilling with Aniline
Black Paste.
CHAPTER XVI—RESIST AND DISCHARGE STENCILLING 228
Japanese Practice—Resist Paste and the Sulphur Colors—Discharge
Stencilling with Bleaching Powder and Hydrosulphite.
CHAPTER XVII—BATIK OR WAX RESIST 241
Javanese Practice—Modern Practice and Apparatus—Dyeing of Batiked
Goods—Use of Batik Process on Cotton, Linen, Silk, Leather, Wood,
Bone, etc.
CHAPTER XVIII—THE INFLUENCE OF THE WAR UPON THE DYESTUFF
INDUSTRY 260
Rise of the German Dyestuff Monopoly—Ruin of the English Dyestuff
Industry—Dyestuff Industry in the United States—Changed
Conditions Due to the War—Lists of Best Dyestuffs.
THE ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES IN COLOR
PLATE
I Indigo dyed batik from Madras _Frontispiece_
FACING PAGE
II Japanese towelling, showing impression of fresh damp leaves 26
III Same towelling after immersion in iron spring 30
IV (_a_) Example of tied and dyed work } 210
(_b_) Example of tied and discharged work }
V Japanese towelling stencilled in resist and dyed by
immersion in iron spring 230
ILLUSTRATIONS IN HALF-TONE
FIG.
1 Shellfish used by the ancients for Tyrian purple 12
Sir W. H. Perkin 42
2 Tied and dyed headdress from an Inca tomb in Peru 192
3 Shikar chundri, from Rajputana, with knots still untied 196
4 Same chundri untied and shaken out 198
5 Bagobo headdress from the Island of Mindanao 200
6 Sample of tied and dyed work, “tied on itself” 202
7 Sample of tied and dyed work, “tied in bands” 204
8 Tied and dyed work—Folding the cloth 206
9 Starting to tie 206
10 Centre portion tied 206
11 Centre and corners tied 208
12 Dyed, untied and shaken out 208
13 Japanese stencil knife 212
14 Japanese stencil brushes 212
15 Japanese stencil, showing holes punched by hand tool 216
16 Japanese stencil, showing use of stops 216
17 Japanese stencil, showing use of sewing instead of stops 216
18 Japanese stencils, showing use of both stops and net 218
19 Large and handsome Japanese stencil, showing use
of net 224
20 “Teapot” model of tjanting 248
21 Walther glass tjanting 248
22 “Wax pencil” model of tjanting 248
23 Javanese tjantings 250
24 American modification of Javanese tjanting 250
DIAGRAMS IN THE LETTERPRESS
Primary Colors 73
Mixed Colors 79
PREFACE
When a new text-book is offered to an innocent and long-suffering
public about such an ancient subject as Dyes and Dyeing, it is,
perhaps, the very least that the author can do, to explain briefly
his reasons for hoping that his particular book may prove of some
special usefulness.
As a matter of fact this book is intended for the use of craftsmen
and others who are trying to dye and stain textiles by hand and on a
small scale, rather than for professional dyers or dyeing chemists
who are interested in factory dyeing, conducted on a large scale.
For the latter there is little or no difficulty in getting any
information that they desire, either from the large and carefully
written text-books or, still better, from the many excellent dyeing
manuals and books of directions issued at frequent intervals by the
great color houses.
But for craftsmen and their like, the amateur dyers as opposed to
the regular professionals, the required information is not easy to
obtain. Their leaders and teachers, as a rule, profess a scorn of
the wonderful discoveries which, in the last half century, have
revolutionized the art of dyeing more, perhaps, than any other branch
of handicraft. And the dyeing chemists and writers have devoted
themselves almost exclusively to the far larger and more important
and more profitable field of commercial or professional dyeing, and
only here and there is one found who has given any special attention
to the dyes and processes needed by those working only on a small
scale.
For my own part, after teaching the principles and practice of modern
dyeing to class after class of chemical students at Columbia, my
attention was called to this particular branch of the subject by
finding, one spring, that some friends had started a hand-weaving
industry at a settlement house in which I was interested, but had
not made any arrangement for a dyehouse at the same time. This was a
serious omission because it is almost impossible to buy in the market
raw materials for hand-woven rugs, table-covers, and the like, that
are dyed just the right shade and, at the same time, are fast to both
light and washing; and, unless this last is guaranteed, there is
little or no excuse for charging the large prices necessary to pay
for the extra expense of the hand labor.
Wishing, therefore, to help out my friends, I offered to assist as
far as possible in this part of the work. That summer was spent on
the St. Lawrence, where it was possible to study some of the textile
work of the French _habitants_ whose dyeing processes, designs, and
looms had descended from mother to daughter since the old Colonial
days; and in the autumn I fitted up a little dyehouse and started
with a small but intelligent class of neighbors who were working at
the looms.
Of course, it was foolish to attempt to teach them the scientific
chemical formulæ used by my students uptown. The processes must
be short and simple—must give the desired shades on cotton, linen,
wool, and silk in the course of an hour or an hour and a half at
the outside, counting from the time when the class was called to
order. And the colors must be absolutely fast to light, and, wherever
possible, to washing also.
The work was very interesting and proved successful enough, at least
as far as the dyeing went. After a few months some visiting reporter,
in an article on Greenwich House and its industries, mentioned the
dyeing, in a magazine, and stated that the colors resulting were not
only beautiful but fast. Immediately I was bombarded with letters
from all over the country, begging for information about permanent
dyestuffs to be used for hand-woven textiles. Requests came from
friends and acquaintances to help them in various side branches of
the subject, such as feather dyeing, leather dyeing and staining,
stencilling, tied and dyed work, and, above all, Batik. And it soon
became a source of much interest to look up some old process of
dyeing, originating perhaps in the East, perhaps among the ancient
Egyptians, and to work it out with the best modern dyestuffs.
Finally, my correspondence grew so burdensome that I arranged with
the well-known New York magazine, _The Craftsman_, for a series of
articles upon “Modern Dyestuffs and Dyeing Processes for the Use of
Craftsmen”; and from these articles the present book is a natural
result.
It is hoped that it will prove useful, not only for individuals who
are trying, under considerable difficulties, to get satisfactory
results, by means of long-abandoned processes, upon textile materials
of many sorts and kinds, but also for teachers of art in our public
as well as private schools. Much attention is being given now to
training the hands of children in various drawing and decorating
and weaving processes. But the modern dyestuffs give a much greater
opportunity to train their eyes to a sense of color and to its
beauties, as well as giving them an introduction into an art which
can be used at home for most useful as well as beautiful purposes.
My hearty thanks are due to many friends, notably, to Mr. Philip
Clarkson, head chemist of H. A. Metz & Co., to Dr. Ludwig, of the
Cassella Color Co., and to many other expert dyeing chemists,
who have most kindly helped me with advice and information about
many widely varying branches of the subject. Also to many of my
craftsman friends, notably Mrs. C. L. Banks, of Bridgeport, Conn.,
and Mrs. Charlotte Busck, of this city, who have been of the
greatest assistance in working out many of the problems involved in
stencilling and Batik; and to Miss Mary Grey, of Hackettstown, N. J.,
who has kindly allowed me to insert an illustration of some of her
interesting and well-designed tied work (Fig. 7). It is my earnest
hope that the information contained in this book may encourage and
assist other craftsmen throughout the country to come up to the high
standard of these skilled textile workers.
C. E. P.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
There has been so much said and written about the beauty and value
of the old-fashioned dyestuffs and dyeing processes and their
superiority to the modern coloring matters, that many well-meaning
people of artistic tastes have never ceased to deplore the discovery
and introduction of the so-called aniline or coal-tar dyes, and to
regard them as a serious detriment to the art of dyeing.
Some, indeed, have gone so far as to decry the discoveries not
only of the last fifty years, but also of the last nineteen or
twenty centuries. These quote with approval the great John Ruskin,
founder and original leader of the whole Arts and Crafts movement in
England, if not in the world, as having said, “There has been nothing
discovered of the slightest interest in the tinctorial art” (the art
of dyeing) “since the days of the ancient Greeks and Romans.”
To suppose for an instant that this important and highly specialized
art has not advanced during nearly two thousand years is, on the
face of it, absurd. A very little knowledge of dyestuffs forces
recognition of the fact that many of the very best, fastest, and most
beautiful of the dyes of our ancestors—such as cochineal, with which
they dyed practically all of their fast pinks and scarlets; logwood,
with which silk as well as wool was, and is still dyed black; fustic,
which was used for fast yellows on wool and cotton, and several
others—were natives of America, and therefore only known to the world
at large since the seventeenth century.
Indeed, as we shall see, the art of dyeing, based as it is on
chemical processes, discovered one by one, but never properly
explained or understood until the last sixty or seventy years, is,
perhaps, the one art above all others in which not only the ancient
world, but the world of comparatively a few years ago, was very
distinctly inferior to that of the present day.
In drawing, sculpture, painting, architecture, ceramics,
wood-carving, lacemaking, metal working, and almost every other art
that can be mentioned, the craftsman of the Middle Ages, if not
indeed of ancient Rome or Greece, could still hold his place against
modern competitors. Even in such a modern art as book printing, the
lover of books will claim, with considerable reason, that no more
beautiful or more nearly perfect specimen of the printer’s art has
ever been produced than the Gutenberg Bible, the first product of the
European printing press.
The art of dyeing, however, has been changing and developing so much
from century to century, that, even before the wonderful discoveries
of the last fifty years, the effects produced by any one generation
of dyers would have been totally impossible for their ancestors of a
few generations before them.
It would seem hardly worth while to dwell further upon this subject,
were not the idea so fixed in the minds of craftsmen in general that
to get permanent and artistic effects in dyeing we must go back to
the colors of our ancestors, if not to those of the ancient world.
To this day we hear of new industries being started in the lines of
hand-made tapestries, hand-woven linens, homespun cloths, and the
like, where, as a great inducement to prospective purchasers, the
goods are loudly proclaimed as dyed with “pure vegetable colors”; and
the first question commonly asked about a pretty piece of dyed work
is, “Are you sure that it is fast? Did you use the vegetable dyes?”
As a result of this ignoring and scorning of the wonderful results of
modern science in its application to this most important industry,
the work of textile craftsmen all over the world is far behind the
times, and comparatively far behind other lines of craftwork.
Nobody expects a modern sculptor to do his carving with the bronze
tools used by the old Athenians; nor do we consider that the present
day worker in metals should refrain from using the modern gas
furnace, or limit his products to the few metals and alloys known in
the Middle Ages, ignoring those which modern chemistry has developed.
And yet, all over the world, craftsmen are still pottering with long
since obsolete dyestuffs and obscure and antiquated formulæ, instead
of spending their energies in getting, with the minimum expenditure
of time and trouble, results of a quality never dreamed of by the
most skilful dyers of half a century ago.
As a matter of fact, so far from Mr. Ruskin’s estimate of the value
of ancient dyes being correct, it is actually no more than fair to
say that hardly a single dyeing process, known and used more than
fifty years ago, is of the slightest practical importance now to any
one.
DYES OF THE ANCIENTS
So far as we can tell, the art of dyeing is an extremely ancient
one. It seems to have developed in every country and to have been
practised by every race of mankind, as soon as that race ceased to
rely exclusively upon the skins of fur-bearing animals for clothing
and coverings. Wherever we find people using woven goods, whether
vegetable, like cotton or linen, or animal, like wool or silk—or
wherever, as in the case of the North American Indians, they
have learned the art of dressing skins so as to make them soft,
pliable, and with a comparatively smooth surface, we find at least
the rudiments of the process of dyeing, in the staining of these
materials to add to their beauty and interest.
_Vegetable Dyes._—The earliest dyes were probably of vegetable
origin, discovered by accidentally staining garments with juices
of fruits or plants. Thus, for instance, in the Bible we read of
“garments dyed in the blood of grapes”; and we can all call to mind
fruits in common use—blackberries, huckleberries, peaches, and the
like, whose juice could be used, if nothing better presented itself,
to dye or stain light-colored fabrics.
In most cases, as in those just mentioned, the colors would be
fugitive, and after a short time become dull and uninteresting. But
in the process of time vegetable dyes were discovered, in one part
and another of the world, which, in the hands of those who knew how
to work with them, gave colors both fast and beautiful. And thus grew
and developed the art of the professional dyer.
For instance, in many widely separated countries, such as India,
Java, South and Central America, plants are found, known as
_indigoferae_, whose juices, yellow when fresh, rapidly turn blue
when exposed to the air. These juices impart a rich and permanent
blue stain to objects moistened with them while they are still
yellow; and this blue is the coloring matter known as indigo. The
plants bearing it have been cultivated for hundreds, if not, indeed,
thousands of years, and used for dyeing.
Garments and blankets found in the so-called Inca graves in Peru and
Chili, dating from long before the Spanish conquest, as well as the
oldest specimens of Hindoo workmanship, and even some of the textiles
found in the tombs of Egypt, all show examples of this same dyestuff.
It was so valuable that, in small quantities and at vast expense, it
was imported by the Romans from India, as is shown by its Latin name,
Indicum (Indian), from which its present name, indigo, is directly
derived.
But, curiously enough, exactly the same dyestuff, but in a very
impure form, and derived from an entirely different plant, the
_isatis tinctoria_, commonly known as _woad_, has been discovered
and used in Western Europe from time immemorial. And when Julius
Cæsar, nearly two thousand years ago, led a Roman army for the first
time across the channel into England, he found the native Britons
adorning themselves by smearing their bodies with a dirty blue
dyestuff obtained from this source.
So, little by little, the knowledge of these natural dyestuffs and
their application grew and expanded. But as a matter of fact, so
far at least as can be gathered from the old writers, those known
and used by the ancient Greeks and Romans were few in number and of
comparatively little interest.
For blues they were obliged to use the inferior color derived, as
above mentioned, from the native woad, excepting when, for some
special purposes, a little indigo was imported from the East at
enormous expense.
Their principal yellow dyestuff was saffron, which is derived from
the flowers of the common yellow crocus. This gives pleasant, warm
shades of golden yellow, not fast, however, to either light or
washing. This same saffron, though long since entirely abandoned as
a dyestuff, is still used in small quantities for staining candy and
foodstuffs, and occasionally for medicinal purposes.
The ancients are believed to have discovered the dyeing properties
of the roots of madder—_rubia tinctorum_—(the dyer’s root), and to
have used it in small quantities for producing purple and brown and,
possibly, even red shades, on cotton and wool. Whether, however,
the art of dyeing the brilliant crimson and scarlet shades known as
Turkey red was ever worked out before the Middle Ages, is extremely
doubtful.
=Animal Dyes.=—Unquestionably the best red dyes known to the people
of those early times were of animal origin, and were used for various
shades of red and of purple.
_Kermes._—One of these, called kermes, is very closely related to the
more important and, up to a few years ago, the very generally used,
cochineal, and to the lac dye.
These three dyestuffs—kermes, cochineal, and lac—come to the market
in the form of little dark colored grains, which, when ground up with
hot water, give a bright red solution called carmine, which contains
a considerable amount of a coloring known as carminic acid. When wool
or silk that has been previously _mordanted_—that is, impregnated
with chemical agents; in this case salts of tin, aluminium, iron,
or copper—is boiled in one of these solutions, it becomes scarlet,
crimson, purple, or claret color, according to the mordant employed.
From the appearance and form, as they come to market, of these
dyestuffs, the shades thus derived are commonly known as the “grain
colors.”
When these granules are soaked for some time in warm water they
swell, and their true character becomes apparent. They consist of
the dried bodies of small insects, known as “cocci” (berries), which
are carefully cultivated on particular kinds of trees or shrubs and
when full grown are brushed off and dried for market. They are very
small—the cochineal grains, which are the most important, running
about 70,000 to the pound.
Kermes, which was the only one of the three known to the old Greeks
and Romans, consists of the dried bodies of the “_coccus ilicis_,”
a variety of the insect which lives on a species of oak, and which,
it is said, is still occasionally used in Southern Europe, and in
Morocco, for dyeing leather and wool.
_Tyrian Purple._—The most highly prized ancient dyestuff, and
one concerning which much interest has always been felt, was the
so-called “Tyrian purple.” This was obtained from the juices of
certain species of snails found in the waters of the Mediterranean
Sea, and, indeed, in the ocean waters of many other warm climates.
Two species of this class—the _murex Brandaris_ and the _murex
trunculus_—were used extensively by the ancients, and great mounds of
their shells, such for instance as the so-called Monte Testaccio at
Tarentum, are still found along the shores at places famous, in old
days, for their dyeing establishments.
Other shellfish of the same general type, known as _purpura
lapillus_, are found quite abundantly, not only in the Mediterranean,
but also on our own coast and along the shores of Central and
South America. They have been used by the natives in Nicaragua and
elsewhere, from time immemorial, for obtaining a similar color.
[Illustration:
_Purpura lapillus_ _Murex trunculus_ _Murex Brandaris_
FIG. 1—SHELLFISH USED BY THE ANCIENTS FOR TYRIAN PURPLE]
These shellfish were so much sought after in the old days that, by
the time of the early Middle Ages, they were almost exterminated,
and the dye disappeared from commerce entirely. But, long before
that, in the early days of the Roman Empire, the coloring matter
was so expensive that fabulous sums were paid for cloth or
yarns dyed with it, and its use was practically confined to the
imperial family. In fact one of the imperial titles in the Eastern
empire—_purpureogenitus_, “born to the purple”—was due to this fact.
Some interesting information upon the value set on this dyestuff
by the ancients is afforded by the so-called Edict of Diocletian,
fragments of which, engraved on stone tablets, have been found in
different parts of the old Roman Empire, ranging from Egypt to Asia
Minor. By this edict, issued in A.D. 301, the emperor Diocletian
attempted to fix the market price of the principal articles of
commerce, for the Eastern empire. According to this, the price of
wool, heavily dyed with this color, was worth about $350 a pound, in
gold.
The dyestuff, as we learn from the description of the process by
ancient writers, was obtained from a whitish or yellowish liquid
found, two or three drops at a time, in a particular vein in the body
of these animals. This juice, when exposed to air and especially to
sunshine, forms the purple or violet color, much in the some manner
that the blue color of indigo is formed from the yellow juice of the
indigo plant.
The shellfish in question, having for many centuries been left
undisturbed, are now quite common in the waters of the Mediterranean,
and are occasionally to be found in the poorer quarters of Venice
and other Italian seaports, exposed for sale as food.
A year or two ago a German color chemist, famous for his discovery of
the brilliant and extremely permanent reddish violet dyestuff, known
as Thio Indigo red B., made a careful investigation to see whether,
by any chance, this color of his might happen to be the same as the
famous old Tyrian purple.
He managed to secure some twelve thousand specimens of _murex
Brandaris_, and, with an immense amount of labor, obtained from these
twelve thousand specimens about twenty-one grains of pure dyestuff.
This he carefully analyzed and experimented with, until finally he
was able to prove that, while it was not identical with his own Thio
Indigo red dyestuff—which, as the name shows, is a compound of indigo
and sulphur—the Tyrian purple was a similar compound of the same
indigo dyestuff, with the comparatively rare acid element, bromine.
In fact it is what the chemists would call a brom-indigo; and this
same famous chemist, Dr. Friedlaender, of Biebrich on the Rhine,
after discovering its composition, amused himself by manufacturing
some of it artificially; and, with the artificial reproduction
of the ancient Tyrian purple, he dyed some skeins of silk, as an
illustration to his article detailing his discovery.
Now, if there were any truth in the theory of the superlative value
and beauty of these ancient dyestuffs, it is evident that this
rediscovery of the true and genuine Tyrian purple would have been a
matter of great practical importance. On the assumption that one
pound of dyestuff would color at least twenty pounds of wool, this
would put the price of the dye itself, in Diocletian’s day, at a
pretty high figure.
It can now be manufactured, at a profit, for not over one
one-thousandth of what it cost in those days, not allowing, either,
for the difference in value of money between then and now. And yet
this famous dye, which was so highly esteemed and of which so much
has been written, is so inferior in color and tone to several of
the modern dyestuffs that it probably would not pay to put it on
the market. Dr. Friedlaender’s samples were, indeed, fast to both
light and washing, but their color showed dull and, to modern eyes,
distinctly uninteresting shades of violet. And there are already on
the market several violet, red and blue dyes of the same general
class—the indigo or vat dyes—which are quite as fast to light and
washing, and far superior in beauty and brilliancy of shade.
It is only proper, however, to state that Dr. Friedlaender’s
investigation did not completely clear up the subject, though there
is no question but that he really discovered the true Tyrian purple;
and the color of the specimens dyed and exhibited by him corresponded
very closely to some still surviving from antiquity.
Among the fine collections of textiles from the Egyptian tombs that
are in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, are some
excellent examples of Tyrian purple. These are what the Greeks used
to call “di-bapha,” or double dyed—i.e., dyed very deep, full shades
of dark purple. While a wonderful example of the lighter, violet,
shades of the same dye can be seen in a famous manuscript, known as
“The Golden Gospels,” now in Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan’s collection in
the same city, but which was given about 1520, by Pope Leo X to King
Henry VIII. This was written, in golden characters, upon vellum dyed
with Tyrian purple, and the shades of the latter correspond quite
closely with the violet of the artificial brom-indigo compound.
On the other hand there is evidence to show that the ancients were
also able to obtain, with the same Tyrian purple dye, perhaps from
the shellfish _purpura lapillus_, fast and brilliant shades of
scarlet, as well as these rather dull tones of violet and purple. In
the days of the Roman Empire, as above mentioned, the use of “purple”
garments was denied to all but the imperial family; but later, after
the rise of the Christian Church, the ecclesiastics gained sufficient
power to obtain this privilege for themselves. And to this day the
cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church are called “porporati” on
account of the “purple” or, as we would say, scarlet, color of their
characteristic robes. So, whenever we see the red robes of a high
dignitary of the church we are probably looking at one of the tints
of the real old Tyrian purple, although the art of actually producing
it has long since been lost; and, if rediscovered, would probably
be of as little practical value as Dr. Friedlaender’s remarkable
investigation.
THE DYES OF OUR ANCESTORS
Between the days of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and the discovery
of the first aniline dye in 1856, many and important additions were
made to the list of available dyestuffs, some of which have continued
in use, for special purposes, up to the present day.
=Indian Dyes.=—The opening of trade to the Far East, due to the
discovery of the sea route round the Cape of Good Hope, brought
to Europe the free use of some of the Indian dyestuffs. Indigo,
for instance, was introduced for the first time in considerable
quantities, and, after much opposition, completely took the place of
the much inferior native dyestuff, woad.
For yellow, the old saffron dye was superseded by the more powerful,
but still rather fugitive, turmeric, or Indian saffron. This came
from the root of the _curcuma tinctoria_, a plant freely grown to
this day in both India and China. The safflower was also imported
from India; this is a kind of thistle, _carthamus tinctorum_,
the dried heads of flowers of which were largely used for dyeing
pretty shades of pink upon cotton, _directly_—that is, without any
mordanting process. This color, too, is comparatively fugitive to
light, and has almost disappeared from sight.
Of more importance were the so-called red woods, which came partly
from India and partly from the east and west coasts of Africa; and
of which the most important are the sandal wood, bar wood, and cam
wood. The wood of each of these trees probably contains the same
coloring matter. The color is not very easy to extract, but when
used with mordants of chromium, aluminium, or tin salts, it dyes
wool various shades of red and reddish-brown. These colors are very
fast to milling—in other words to the action of alkalies when the
wool is finished in the manufacture of broadcloth; but they are not
particularly fast to light, and for this reason, as well as because
of their greater expense, they have been for the most part abandoned.
From India, too, were introduced the well-known brown dyes known as
cutch (catechu) and gambier. These come to the market in the form of
dark colored pastes, formed by evaporating infusions of leaves, seed
pods, nuts, and sometimes the wood of various species of acacia and
areca trees. They contain large amounts of a peculiar variety of the
substance known as tannin or tannic acid, which is widely distributed
among many plants, and which is very useful in dyeing, as will be
described later. The brown coloring matter has been isolated, and is
called catechin. Both cutch and gambier will dye cotton and wool rich
shades of brown, which are quite fast to light when after-treated
with copper or chromium salts.
=Dyes from the New World.=—The discovery of America, and the
colonizing and opening to trade of South America and the West Indies,
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, still further enlarged
the field for dyers.
_Cochineal._—One of the first dyes introduced from there was
cochineal, a “grain color,” similar to kermes, already described,
consisting of the dried bodies of an insect known as _coccus cacti_,
because it lives upon certain kind of cactus which are native to
Mexico and Central America.
This dyestuff was largely used for dyeing wool and silk goods, and
produced fairly fast shades of crimson or of scarlet, according to
the mordant employed. But it has been replaced almost entirely now by
the various acid dyes, to be described later, which are cheaper, are
much easier to apply, and are of equal and, in many cases, of much
greater, fastness to light.
One of the few cases where cochineal is still used on a large scale
is in England, where the scarlet coats of the British regulars are
dyed with this color, on a tin mordant. It is believed, however, that
this is not due to any real or fancied superiority of the old dye
over many of the modern colors, but simply to the terms of an old
“perpetual” contract, which, a hundred and fifty years or more ago,
gave the privilege of dyeing the English “redcoats” to one particular
firm and their successors, on condition that they use this dye and
none other. Although both dyers and government would profit by the
use of modern dyes, the terms of the old contract are still rigidly
adhered to for fear of losing the monopoly.
_Lac Dye._—The similar dyestuff called lac dye, which had been known
and used in India for hundreds of years, was introduced into Europe
towards the end of the eighteenth century. It also is the body of a
small insect, the _coccus laccae_, which lives on the twigs of the
banyan tree, and other varieties of fig trees. When these twigs are
broken off and dried to kill the insect, there is found present on
them, along with the coloring matter, a large amount of a peculiar
resinous or gummy substance, which, when extracted and purified, is
known and widely used, as “shellac.”
Lac dye was used in practically the same way as cochineal, and
produced, upon wool, scarlet, orange, and crimson shades, which
were faster and more solid, but not as brilliant, as the cochineal.
It is now used but rarely, even in the East, having been largely
superseded, there, by brilliant but, unfortunately, in many cases,
cheap and worthless modern dyestuffs.
_Fustic._—From America, also, came the excellent yellow dyestuff,
“fustic,” yielded by the tree commonly called yellow wood, Cuba wood,
etc. Its true botanical name, however, is _chlorophora tinctoria_,
and it was largely used for dyeing, either directly in the form of
chips, or as a solid or liquid extract made from the wood.
It was principally used with mordants of aluminium or tin salts,
for dyeing wool bright, fast shades of yellow, or, with the aid of
bichromate of potash as a mordant, for obtaining mixed shades, in
conjunction with indigo, cutch, madder, and logwood. It has been
almost entirely replaced now by fast modern dyestuffs.
_Logwood._—The most important of all these dyestuffs, and the only
one still used on a large scale, is logwood, a dye extracted from
the wood of quite a large tree, the _haematoxylon Campechianum_ (the
“blood-red wood from Campeachy”), which grows freely in the West
Indies and Central American states.
It was discovered and used by the Spaniards early in the sixteenth
century, and in Queen Elizabeth’s reign was introduced into England,
much against the wishes of the older school of dyers who furiously
denounced it as producing fugitive colors, and had its use prohibited
by Act of Parliament. It was over a hundred years before the real
value of the dyestuff was appreciated, and this law was repealed.
The operation of extracting the coloring matter from the wood
itself, of which it forms only some three per cent. by weight, is
a troublesome and delicate one. The logs are chipped or rasped
into fine pieces, then moistened and piled in heaps and the color
developed by a process of fermentation. Accordingly, extracts
of logwood have been put on the market by various large firms,
especially of late years, and, while the use of the wood itself by
dyers has for the most part been abandoned, these extracts are widely
used for dyeing blacks upon silk, in spite of there now being many
excellent acid blacks.
The dyeing process, too, is rather complicated, for the goods must
be carefully mordanted before dyeing, with salts of iron, chromium,
or tin. For this reason wool is rarely dyed with logwood. It is,
however, still used for silk dyeing, partly because it gives very
full, deep, permanent shades of black, but principally because, by
using one mordant after another before dyeing, it is possible to
increase enormously the weight of the dyed silk, at very moderate
expense.
_Turkey Red._—The use of madder which, as before mentioned, was
probably known to the ancients, was greatly developed during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, owing to the introduction from
the near East of the so-called Turkey red process for obtaining, upon
cotton and wool, very fast and very brilliant shades of scarlet.
The process took some three months, and consisted of an elaborate
series of mordanting operations, before the dyeing proper began. The
goods were first soaked in a bath of some fatty material, such as
milk or, later, rancid olive oil, and then dried carefully. After
this they were soaked in a bath of alum and then in limewater, or a
chalk bath—and these operations were repeated over and over, with
various manipulations in between.
Finally, the mordanted material was dyed by boiling it in a bath
containing the finely-ground madder root, and then “brightened” by
washing out, in a boiling soap bath, all the loose color and the
unfixed mordant. This process was repeated until the proper shade was
reached.
During the early part of the nineteenth century, various extracts
of madder were made, by treating the ground root with strong
sulphuric acid and other agents, which destroyed the woody tissues
and other inert matter, without injuring the coloring matter. The
dyeing process also was greatly simplified and shortened. Later the
real active principles of the madder root were investigated, and
found to be two crystalline bodies named alizarine and purpurine,
respectively. And finally, several years after aniline dyestuffs
had been discovered and manufactured, two German chemists, Graebe
and Liebermann, discovered a method for making these very identical
substances out of coal tar.
Since that time the cultivation and use of madder has disappeared
almost entirely. But real Turkey red is manufactured to-day, and
in very large quantities—and, though freely imitated by inferior
products, the modern Turkey red is just as fast to light and to
washing as it ever was in the past, and possesses a brilliance and a
lustre which never could have been obtained formerly. The process,
however, is completed now in hours, not days, and instead of yielding
a few shades of red and purple, the alizarine colors have been added
to until they cover a large range of blues, purples, reds, oranges,
yellows, and browns, all of them as fast as the original Eastern
products, and all of them made from coal tar.
The dyes already mentioned were the ones which, after hundreds of
years of experiment, proved to be of distinct value. Many of them
were expensive in themselves and, in almost every case, the process
of dyeing with them was a quite complicated one, worked out by
generations of practical dyers, and passed down from father to son as
a precious trade secret.
Besides these there were, in almost every community, certain special
formulæ and recipes for obtaining, by comparatively simple methods,
dyes of varying degrees of value from more or less common vegetable
materials. Some of these are occasionally met with to this day.
Thus, in the province of Quebec, well down on the St. Lawrence, the
French Canadian women still dye their homespun worsteds an orange
shade of yellow, of very moderate fastness to light, by boiling them
with the skins of the yellow or brown onions. And they get a pretty,
but fugitive, shade of golden yellow by using the dried flowers of
the goldenrod.
Some recipes from the mountain districts of North Carolina, where
the sheep are raised and sheared, and the wool carded, spun, dyed,
and woven into homespun, are unique, and wool dyed with them shows
extremely good color. Thus, for green, we are told to “Git blackjack
or black oak bark, and bile it right good, and put in a li’l piece of
alum. This makes the pur’tiest green, mighty nigh, that ever was.”
And for purple and black the instructions are to “git maple bark and
bile it. Throw in a grain of copperas and put in your wool. Bile it
just so long if you want purple, and longer if you want black. The
longer you bile it the darker it gits.”
Recipes like these can be picked up in country districts all over the
land to this day, and where no other coloring agents can be obtained,
they may still be of some use. They are to be compared, however, to
the somewhat similar recipes of the herb or “yarb” doctor, now almost
extinct, who concocted various brews and teas and messes from roots
and leaves, and administered them as valuable remedies.
Useful these brews undoubtedly were in their day, when it was
impossible to get better medicines at any price, and the available
drugs, even in large cities, were few and costly and but little
understood. But who of us would now prefer to treat a serious illness
with herb tea when within reach of even a third-class drug store?
And so to-day, when modern dyestuffs, even if not of the very best
varieties, can be bought in packages at the nearest grocery or
druggist, who has time to waste upon the laborious processes and
messy, uncertain formulæ of former and unscientific ages?
MINERAL DYES
Tribes and nations in different parts of the world seem, at a
comparatively early date, to have found out the art of coloring and
staining textiles with mineral compounds. Iron springs, containing
iron salts in solution, are found in many countries; and such springs
are always noteworthy from the taste of the waters, and the color of
the sediments left when the water stands exposed to the air.
Therefore discovery of the fact that those waters would impart
a permanent and quite pleasing orange or reddish-brown color to
textiles was perfectly natural.
=Iron Buff.=—Accordingly, in different parts of the world, people
learned to dip cloths in these springs and then expose them to the
air, thus dyeing them this iron rust color, commonly called by dyers
“iron buff.” When iron became a common metal, it was found that any
soluble salt of iron would act as a dyeing solution, just as well
as a natural iron spring; and hence we find use made, in widely
separated countries, of iron salts for dyeing.
This iron buff is used to this day, though of course it has lost the
importance it had in the past. The red sails of the fishermen in the
Mediterranean show this color; and it is a useful and interesting
dye for weavers of hand-made rugs, curtains, and the like, because
of its pleasing tone and great permanence. On the other hand, it is
very likely to rub; and it fills the fibre of the cloth with mineral
matter, thereby making the material stiff and hard to sew or cut.
_Preparation._—Our colonial ancestors made this color cheaply enough.
They carefully saved all the scraps of iron and steel that they could
find—old horseshoes, broken knife blades, etc., etc.—and placed them
in a barrel half filled with vinegar and water. Little by little
the iron dissolved in the acid and, when it was strong enough, the
housewife would soak her homespun cloth, or other material, in the
solution, warming and stirring it, and making it absorb as much
of the liquor as possible. Then she would take it out, wring it
thoroughly, rinse it slightly, and dip it for a minute or two in
another barrel half filled with a water extract of wood ashes.
[Illustration: PLATE II. JAPANESE TOWELLING, SHOWING IMPRESSION OF
FRESH DAMP LEAVES]
After removing from the solution and wringing again, the goods were
shaken out and exposed to the air for some minutes, during which time
the color would develop—in other words, would make its final change
to yellow or orange, or even to brownish-red, according to the amount
of iron absorbed by the fibre.
The process, nowadays, is much the same, excepting that, for the
first or iron bath, it is cheaper and easier to use a solution of
the green crystalline iron salt, known as copperas, or as _ferrous_
(iron) _sulphate_. This can be obtained at, or through, any drug
store at a very low price, as it is not necessary to buy a chemically
pure product. The ordinary commercial salt is as pure as the work
requires; this dissolves quite readily in warm water.
The amount of copperas to be used, to dye a particular lot of
material a particular shade, can only be determined by experience and
experiment. It is always easy to build up a color, i.e., to deepen
its shade if it is too light, by dipping the fabric over again in
the same dye-bath. Indeed there is a general rule to be observed in
dyeing all colors like this iron buff or the manganese brown—as well
as the sulphur and indigo colors, which will be described later—that
are developed, or fixed, by exposure to the air. Whenever dark shades
of these colors are desired, they should be produced by successive
dippings in weak baths, rather than by one or two dippings in strong
baths. This avoids rubbing, as far as possible, and lessens the
injury to the cloth fibre. In general, it is best to start with a
dye-bath containing some three or four tablespoonfuls of copperas to
one gallon of hot water.
For the second, or fixing, bath—that is, the alkali bath—it is now
customary to use a solution of soda instead of the extract made
from wood ashes. Either cooking soda (bicarbonate of soda) or the
stronger washing soda or soda crystals, known to the chemist as
carbonate of soda, will be satisfactory, and instead of soda the
corresponding potash salts may be used, though these are usually
more expensive. It is possible, too, to use a bath of the so-called
caustic soda, or caustic potash, known to the chemist as hydroxide of
soda and hydroxide of potash. But these, as the name implies, must
be handled with care because, when strong, they are likely to burn
the hands and clothes. Careful analyses of dyed mummy cloths show
that the ancient Egyptians were accustomed to use for their second or
fixing bath, a solution of slaked lime, or lime water.
_Khaki._—By mixing in the first bath of copperas or other iron salt
an equal quantity of chrome alum, and then fixing and developing as
above, a certain amount of greenish chromium oxide is deposited in
the fibre along with the oxide of iron. This gives rise to the shade
known as “khaki.” Sometimes shaded a little with manganese brown,
this was the regular dye for the army uniforms, until the recent
introduction of the extremely fast and very satisfactory vat dyes.
_Uses._—Iron buff is chiefly used for cotton, linen, and other
vegetable fabrics; on them it gives pleasant, warm shades of orange
and reddish-brown. But on wool, and especially on silk, it is not so
satisfactory, owing to its tendency to roughen and injure the fibre.
Indeed, in the case of silk, it is likely to greatly diminish, or
even to destroy, the lustre. On cotton and linen, however, it has
great fastness to light and to washing. Indeed, every one who has
tried to get rust stains out of a garment or a piece of table linen
knows how hard a matter it is to get rid of the color.
Another important reason for using this dye is that the coloring
agents are very cheap, and are easily obtained in any quantities.
It has, however, some serious disadvantages, one of which is that
the color, especially in dark shades, is very liable to rub. This
can best be obviated by building up the shades with successive
dippings; and by thoroughly washing the finished goods in a hot soap
bath. The dyed goods are pretty certain to be a little stiff, and
therefore hard to sew or cut, owing to the fact that the final color
is composed of iron rust. When vegetable fibres are filled with a
mineral matter they are naturally stiffer and harder than they were
originally.
Then there is the final objection on the part of professional dyers
to this color, as well as to all the other developed colors, i.e.,
those colors fixed by exposure to the air. It is not easy to get a
smooth, even color with them, and it is very difficult to dye to
shade. For handicraft work, where these two points are of minor
importance as compared with the beauty of the color, this objection
is not so serious, but where it is necessary to dye large amounts of
yarn or cloth to a definite shade with this, or similar, dyes, it is,
as a rule, far easier to use a dyestuff which does not materially
change its shade after the goods leave the dye-bath.
_Iron Grey._—Soon after the discovery, in different localities, of
the iron buff color, it was discovered that by the action of various
vegetable extracts upon the iron salts, dark grey stains could be
produced which, under certain conditions, would be fairly fast to
light and washing.
This color was, later, found to be due to the combination with iron
of the peculiar vegetable acid called tannic acid or tannin. This
is found in small quantities in the juices of twigs and leaves of
many varieties of plants, and, until the introduction of the modern
dyestuffs, this process offered the chief method of obtaining grey
or black shades upon cotton. At present it is rarely, if ever, used
for that purpose, but the compound is still the basis of most of the
writing inks on the market.
To make this color, the cloth is soaked for some time in a solution
of an iron salt—nitrate of iron, formed by boiling a solution of
copperas for a minute or two with a few drops of nitric acid, is
preferable to the untreated copperas—and then, after being wrung and
slightly rinsed, it is plunged into a bath containing tannic acid.
This can be made by dissolving a few tablespoonfuls of the dry tannic
acid in some water, or by making a hot infusion of the leaves, twigs,
or bark of any plant or tree containing it. Tea leaves contain much
tannin, and so do unripe English walnuts and butternuts. Acorns,
oak leaves with nut galls on them, the green twigs of alders, and
hazelnut bushes, have all been used to form this color.
[Illustration: PLATE III. SAME TOWELLING AS IN PLATE II, AFTER
IMMERSION IN IRON SPRING. THE ROUND WHITE PATTERNS ARE MADE BY TIEING]
The grey color quickly develops and, after rinsing, the material can
be dried and pressed, or dipped again to obtain a deeper shade, first
into the iron and then into the tannin bath. The color is a pleasant,
soft shade of grey or, if dyed deeply, a black. It is fast to
washing, and fairly so to light, though it may become rusty on
standing; like the iron buff, it is not fast to acids.
Some interesting examples of the dyeing of cotton cloth with iron
buff and iron grey are shown in Plate I. They came from the mineral
springs at Arima, near Kobe in Japan, where the waters are so
saturated with iron salts, that comparatively short immersion, and
exposure to air, will bring out a deep orange shade. The Japanese,
not content with dyeing their goods plain colors, have for many
generations utilized these springs in the production of figures and
designs on the cloth. Plate V is an example of stencil work, where
the white patterns are made by covering parts of the cloth with a
“resist paste” which protects whatever it is in contact with from the
action of the coloring agent.
Plate II shows a piece of soft calico on which impressions of leaves
have been made by placing fresh juicy leaves between two pieces of
cloth, and beating them with wooden mallets.
Plate III shows the same piece of cloth as in Plate II, after
immersion in the iron spring, and exposure to air. The tannin from
the leaf juice converts some of the iron oxide into iron grey; while
the white figures are made by tying the cloth with string or tape
(Tied and Dyed work) before dyeing it.
So far as we can tell, these two were the only mineral colors
known to the ancients. Several other mineral colors, however,
were in common use by the cotton dyers in the days preceding the
introduction of modern dyestuffs, but it is hardly worth while to
dwell here on many of them. Yellow and orange shades were obtained by
impregnating cloth with lead salts, and then developing with a bath
of chromate or bichromate of potash, with more or less caustic alkali
added for the darker shades.
Prussian blue, too, was used as a substitute for the more expensive
indigo. This was formed by using the nitrate of iron for the first
bath, and then developing the color with a bath of yellow prussiate
(_ferrocyanide_) of potash. These colors, however, are so far
inferior in their application, and in fastness to light and to
rubbing, to the colors now at our command, that they have disappeared
entirely for textile work, though they are still widely used for
pigments.
=Manganese Bronze (Manganese Brown, Bistre).=—There is one good
mineral color, however, which came into use early in the last
century and which, while hardly ever used by professional dyers, is
of interest to craftsmen. This color, in its chemical composition,
greatly resembles the iron buff. It is quite cheaply produced
by first impregnating the cloth to be dyed with a solution of a
manganese salt (_manganese chloride_ is the cheapest), and then, by
means of a second bath of alkali, forming a deposit on the fibre of
pink _manganese hydroxide_—corresponding to the greenish _ferrous
hydroxide_—which, on exposure to the air, absorbs oxygen and forms
the final brown color.
Unfortunately the alkali used in this case must be caustic
alkali—_potassium hydroxide_ or _sodium hydroxide_—and not one of the
mild alkalies like the carbonates or bicarbonates, which will do for
the iron color. And, therefore, although it is rather more expensive,
and is somewhat liable to weaken the fabric, it is generally more
convenient to obtain this color by a one-bath process. A purple
solution of the salt known as _permanganate of potash_, is prepared
and the cloth dipped. After being immersed it is wrung carefully and
shaken out, and the red or purplish color gradually changes into the
final brown. As soon as this change has taken place the goods should
be plunged into a hot soap bath and thoroughly scoured, both to
remove any loosely adhering particles of color which cause rubbing,
and to prevent tendering of the cloth.
The latter danger, however, is always present with this process and,
therefore, full shades should not be dyed excepting on heavy, strong
goods like rugs or very coarse yarns or cloth. Even then it should be
done carefully and by successive dippings, with a careful washing,
after the color has been developed in the air, between each bath.
This injury to the cloth which, hitherto, has been the great drawback
to the permanganate process, can be avoided by dipping the goods,
as soon as possible after leaving the dye-baths, into a solution
containing glucose, as, for instance, two or three spoonfuls of
Karo (corn syrup) or molasses in each gallon of hot water. Directly
the purple-stained cloth touches this solution the color changes to
brown, without affecting the strength of the materials.
This color, like the other mineral colors, is rarely, if ever, to be
used on silk, being altogether too likely to injure the texture and
the lustre of the material.
In at least one instance, however, it has been used on animal
fibres with considerable success. During the critical part of the
Boer war, it was at one time necessary for England to put as many
of her troops as possible—especially her mounted troops—into the
field. Among others the Scots Greys, distinguished at Waterloo and
made famous in many other bloody campaigns as a fine old fighting
regiment, were ordered to the front. There is a tradition, dating
back over two hundred years, that the horses of this regiment must
all be either white or grey in color. Some heaven-sent genius at the
Horse Guards—the English War Department—hinted quite forcibly to
the authorities that to send out a cavalry regiment on white horses
to face the Boer sharpshooters, was rather a dangerous experiment.
The authorities, therefore, consulted a well-known dyeing chemist.
He advised them to send down, on the troopship, some kegs of
permanganate; and to instruct the officers and men to sponge each
horse with a weak solution of the salt, every day at “Stables.” This
was done, and, in consequence, long before reaching Cape Town, the
skin and hair of every horse was thoroughly colored a soft, quiet
shade of brown.
The color produced by permanganate varies, according to the strength
of the solution, or rather with the number of dips in comparatively
weak solutions, from a light brownish tan to a full, rich, soft, seal
brown. Pleasant shades, too, can be obtained by dyeing first with
the iron rust dye and then covering with the permanganate. This color
is discharged, not only from textiles but from the hands, by soaking
in a solution of _sodium hydrosulphite_ (commonly used in dyeing
indigo) and then washing.
PRACTICAL DYEING
Before proceeding to the practical dyeing instruction it is well to
say a few words about the equipment needed for the work.
Fortunately no elaborate or expensive outfit is necessary, even
for the beginner. And after one has had a little experience, it is
astonishing what an amount of interesting, and even important work
can be turned out with a few of the very simplest utensils. The
essentials may be set down as follows:
Dye-pots.
Heating devices.
Stirring rods, or dye-sticks.
Wringers.
Drying arrangements.
_Dye-pots._—For this purpose, common agateware vessels are best
and most convenient. There should be varying sizes to accommodate
different amounts of material to be dyed. The so-called “miner’s
cups,” which are agateware cups holding a pint or more, are large
enough for practical work, when single skeins are being dyed. For
large pieces use the wash boilers which vary in capacity from one to
five gallons. It is always best, especially for amateurs, to dye in
one batch enough material to complete the work on hand, whether rug,
portière, or piece of tapestry. This avoids the necessity of exactly
matching the shade afterward.
For three and a half to four pounds of cotton rags, such as are used
in making rag carpets, three and one-half gallon pots are about the
right size. This amount of material will be about enough for the
filling for one rug about 6×4 feet, woven on a hand loom.
_Heating Devices._—Work may be done over any flat-topped stove that
burns wood or coal; gas is, of course, an advantage and so is an oil
stove, as with these the heat may be regulated very exactly and much
time saved. For actual work, a stove with space for four or five pots
is the most convenient type to use.
There should always be one large pot set aside for heating water,
another for boiling out the raw goods, and still a third for boiling
out and brightening the finished materials with soap, when very fast
colors are used on cotton or linen; and each of these pots should be
reserved for its special purpose and _not used_ for dyeing. This will
avoid the danger of staining the goods.
The top of a kitchen range will do for heating, but whenever
possible, it is best to have a separate stove, so placed that the top
of it will not be more than about twenty-four inches from the ground
or floor. This enables the operator to look down into the dye-pot
and so avoid strain, and the consequent excessive fatigue while
stirring the goods.
_Stirring Rods._—While the material is being dyed, it should be kept
in constant motion. When working with small amounts of material, or
with goods such as straw, raffia, muslin, or silk in skeins, which
are delicate and easily spoiled, it is far more satisfactory in every
way to use heavy glass rods for stirring. These are rather expensive.
They are about fifteen inches in length and well rounded at the ends.
If carefully handled and thoroughly washed, they are always clean
and smooth. Care must, of course, be exercised in their use, as
sudden variations of heat and cold may cause them to crack or chip,
and lifting or stirring large quantities of heavy materials—anything
above five pounds—is liable to break them. In these cases, it is
best to use wooden dye-sticks. Broomsticks or dowel sticks, cut into
two-foot lengths, with the ends rounded carefully by whittling with
a sharp penknife, are excellent substitutes. For careful work it is
necessary to have several sets of wooden dye-sticks—two for each main
color at least—and these must be carefully washed each time after
using, or they will stain cloth that is being dyed light shades. They
are bound to get soft and rotten before very long, from the action of
the alkali in the dye-baths, but they are easily replaced.
Good rubber gloves are extremely useful while dyeing, to protect the
hands not only from being stained and discolored by the dyes, but
also from the action of the chemicals—especially while dyeing with
indigo and other dyes wherein the caustic alkalies are employed.
After some experience in the use of dye-sticks, however, it will be
found comparatively easy to handle the materials, in and out of the
dye-baths, with the sticks, without at any time taking hold of them
with the hand. Nothing demonstrates more clearly the skill of the
dyer than the ability to carry, immerse in the dye-bath, stir, take
out, wring, and rinse the materials without getting stains on either
clothes or fingers. On the other hand, the amount of slopping that
can be accomplished by a careless, but enthusiastic, amateur must be
lived with to be thoroughly appreciated.
_Wringers._—Both before and after dyeing it is very important to have
at hand a good clothes wringer, preferably with metal frame. In fact,
for very careful work there should be two wringers; one to wring out
the raw materials after boiling them in soap and water, or, if clean,
in plain water, to insure that they are thoroughly and evenly wet;
and the other to wring out the excess of dye-liquor from the goods
before rinsing, or, as in some cases, before hanging up to oxidize.
The rubber rolls of these wringers should be kept clean by scouring
with soap and sapolio immediately after finishing the day’s work, and
by carefully rinsing free from dye-liquor.
It is always well to keep on hand near the wringer a supply of clean
blotting paper, or cheap filter paper, or even soft, dry cheesecloth
or muslin. For by wrapping the materials that have just been dyed, in
any of these, and then running them backwards and forwards through
the wringer, it is possible to dry them with a minimum of time and
exposure. This is particularly important in the case of natural and
artificial silks, either in skeins or scarfs, of ostrich feathers,
and of other light and fragile materials.
_Drying Arrangements._—Sufficient room should be provided for
hanging up the cloth to dry. An ordinary clothes-line, conveniently
fastened, is the best means of support. For special purposes, where
the material handled is very delicate or where the work is done in
a classroom, a simple clothes-horse made of thick glass tubing, one
inch or so in diameter and supported on a wooden frame, will occupy
the least possible space and give the best support.
CHAPTER II
MODERN DYESTUFFS
The whole art and practice of dyeing was completely revolutionized
once and forever, by the discovery in 1856 of the artificial dyestuff
named mauveine, or, more commonly, mauve, a name, by the way, derived
from the French name of the violet-colored mallow flower.
The discovery was made accidentally, by a young chemical student,
William Henry Perkin, while experimenting in a very crude and simple
way, with a view to forming artificial quinine from a curious oily
body known as aniline. This aniline was originally prepared by
distilling indigo in a dry retort, and it had received its name from
the native Javanese word “anil,” meaning indigo. While thus prepared
it was, of course, very expensive. But about this time methods were
invented for obtaining this same compound in practically unlimited
quantities from coal tar—that heavy, foul-smelling refuse of gas
works—which, up to that time, had been not only useless but actually
a source of annoyance and expense to the gas companies.
Perkin conceived the idea that, by partially burning or oxidizing
it, this aniline might be changed into quinine. He made the
experiment and there resulted a black molasses-like mass, very far
removed from the white crystals he was hoping for. But by testing
this with various chemicals, he found that hot alcohol dissolved
part of it, and turned it into a violet liquid which had the power
to dye silk and wool the same bright color. Finding that the color
was fairly fast to light, and that it could be produced without too
much expense, he took out a patent and, with the aid of his father
and brother, set up near Manchester, England, the first factory for
artificial dyestuffs.
His discoveries were at once published, and chemists all over the
world began to manufacture and experiment with the new dyestuffs.
Great factories were started all over Europe. From this beginning the
manufacture of coal-tar dyestuffs, and more recently all their allied
compounds, has become one of the most important and most profitable
of all chemical industries.
The dyes first discovered, the so-called “Basic dyes,” were of great
brilliancy and strength; but they were not of any particular beauty
when used individually. Compared with the vegetable colors which
preceded them, and especially the same shades we are accustomed
to see in nature, these dyes were hard, coarse, crude, and very
inartistic. This could be remedied, however, by mixing two or three
of them together, such mixture tending to soften the different colors
and blend all into pleasant and delicate shades.
A more serious difficulty was the fact that those early dyestuffs
were usually quite fugitive to light or, at any rate, far less fast
than the best of the vegetable dyes that preceded them. Besides, they
did not fade true. In other words, a piece of cloth might to-day be
a bright red, and after a few days of exposure to the sunlight, the
exposed portions might turn a yellow, a white, or even some dark
color; and, in any case, the change would entirely spoil the original
color scheme.
By 1868, however, the artificial manufacture of alizarine, first by
two German chemists, and then by Perkin himself, served to open up
another whole class of new dyestuffs, which, when submitted to the
proper tests, proved to be exceedingly fast both to light and to
washing. In consequence, within a few years after this discovery, the
commercial use of madder was everywhere abandoned. Chemists could now
produce on cotton, linen, wool, and silk, practically the whole range
of colors, brilliant and dull, hard and soft, light and dark, not
only of a beauty, but of a fastness to light and to washing, never
before surpassed, if indeed equalled.
[Illustration: AT THE AGE OF 14]
[Illustration: AT THE AGE OF 22]
[Illustration:
AT THE TIME OF THE COAL-TAR COLOR JUBILEE—50 YEARS AFTER HIS
DISCOVERY OF MAUVEINE
SIR W. H. PERKIN]
Since that time, not a year has gone by without scores of new
dyestuffs being put on the market by some of the great color houses.
Of late years special efforts have been made to simplify dyeing
processes, and at the same time to insure the fastness as well as
the beauty of the colors. At the present time it is possible for the
veriest amateur, with practically no previous knowledge of chemistry
or of dyeing, and with only intelligence enough to follow some simple
directions, to get, in one bath, with very little expenditure of
time, an immense variety of shades that are exceedingly fast to light
and to washing. A very few years ago this result could not possibly
have been obtained, except by some expert dyer, and then only after
long and tedious, as well as difficult, processes.
We are all familiar with the constant complaint that it is now
impossible to get goods dyed or printed in good, fast colors. For
instance, take the brilliant scarlet calico commonly known as Turkey
red. In the days of our grandfathers a piece of cloth dyed Turkey
red would stand rain and sun, washing and scouring, and the _fibre_
would wear out before the _color_ would fade. But nowadays, if you
buy Turkey red cloth for the purpose of covering cushions for a
piazza-lounge, you will be fortunate if the color does not begin to
change after three or four days in the open air.
The reason is simple. In the old days the _only_ way to get that
particular shade was by dyeing the cloth with ground-up madder root,
through a series of operations lasting the best part of two months.
Now any capable dyer would be able to dye cotton that exact shade
with any of, say, twenty different colors, most of which would not
require more than one or two hours to dye. Out of these twenty
dyestuffs, four or five, rather more expensive than the rest, would
give just as fast, just as brilliant, and just as strong color as the
good old madder color. But the rest, which are distinctly cheaper and
easier to apply, would furnish goods which would _look_ exactly the
same to the average purchaser, but which might not _last_ any time at
all.
Naturally, the average manufacturer carefully instructs his dyer to
furnish him with the “cheap and nasty” goods, not only because it
costs less money, but also, unfortunately, because he reasons that
“it will be good for business.” The manufacturer has the greatest
sympathy with the inclination of the fastidious housewife to throw
away anything that looks faded, and to buy in its place something
new and fresh. Curtains or portières that hold their original shade
indefinitely, he has little or no patience with. A calico dress that
keeps its color so that it can be worn for a second summer, is an
abomination not to be endured. And in every case, when complaint is
made, it is always said to be the fault of the chemist who produced
and put on the market such “horrid, fugitive dyes.”
As a matter of fact, it is simply a case of picking and choosing.
There have been discovered, so far, several thousand different
coal-tar dyestuffs of all sorts and kinds. Out of these, probably
one hundred, or less, can be considered really fast to both light
and washing. The remaining ones, most of which never were considered
valuable enough to put on the market, vary in degrees of fastness,
the poorest being simply stains which will “bleed” indefinitely with
moderate washing, and which will turn almost any color after exposure
for a few hours to sun and weather.
In the following pages, considerable pains will be taken to emphasize
the names and properties of the very best and fastest dyestuffs in
the different classes,[1] so that the results of work done with them
can be depended upon.
[1] In some classes there are no absolutely fast dyestuffs.
Perhaps the most interesting thing, in connection with the whole
subject of the artificial dyestuffs, is the enormous influence that
they have had upon the life of the whole human race. This influence
was but slightly appreciated, even by the chemists themselves,
until a few years ago. The awakening dates from the time of the
fiftieth anniversary of the discovery of mauveine, when from one end
of the world to the other, honors were showered upon Sir William
Henry Perkin, then grown old and nearing the end of his useful and
prosperous life. It was then announced, and was for the first time
generally recognized as true, that no one of the great discoveries
of the nineteenth century—the steam locomotive, the steamship, the
telephone, the telegraph, the gas light, the electric light, and the
rest—had been more important to the world at large than the discovery
of the first coal-tar dye. And probably never in the history of
the world have such enormous results been produced from a single
discovery, during the lifetime of the discoverer himself.
THE ARTIFICIAL DYESTUFFS
The artificial dyestuffs form such a large body of complicated
chemical compounds, that at first glance it would seem hopeless for
any one who is not a trained chemist, to attempt to get any clear
or definite ideas about them. This, indeed, would be the case if any
attempt were made to study them chemically, i.e., with reference to
their composition, or their method of manufacture; but when it comes
to the application of them to the various textile fabrics and other
materials, for which dyes are valuable, we soon find that the problem
is not so very difficult after all.
To be sure there are many hundreds of different dyes on the market
now, great numbers of which are known under three or four different
trade names, according to the trade-mark of each particular
manufacturer. But besides the great manufacturers, and their
accredited agents, there are numerous retail agencies all over the
country, large and small, which make a business of distributing dyes
made by the great concerns. Some of these are very energetic, and
have pushed the sale of artificial dyestuffs in ten- and fifteen-cent
packages, until in almost every village, large enough to boast of a
decent country store, these dyes can be obtained.
It is common to hear these dyes sneered at and abused. They are
frequently referred to, especially by those of “artistic tastes,”
as harsh and crude in color, fugitive to light and washing, and, in
short, generally inferior and worthless products. This is not the
case. They are, in some cases, individual dyestuffs, and in other
cases, mixtures, generally belonging to the class of colors next to
be described, the Salt dyes; and very good, if not indeed the very
best specimens of that class. These Salt dyes, until the last few
years, were far from fast, either to light or washing; but the more
recent members of the class are much more satisfactory, and these
colors, too, are found in the fifteen-cent packages.
Nor, too, can objection be fairly taken to the shades as being crude
and harsh. That is all a matter of taste and skill on the part of the
dyer. There is no better practice in dyeing than to take the very
hardest, clearest, most brilliant red, blue, and yellow colors that
can be found at the corner grocery and, following the directions on
the packages, proceed to dye yarn or cheesecloth with them, at first
using the individual dyes, and afterwards modifying the shade of one
dye with traces of each of the other two. The softness and richness
of the tones that can be thus obtained will satisfy the most critical.
The real objection to these widely distributed popular dyes is a
very different one. They are not sold under their own names, and
therefore it is almost impossible to identify them. To be sure, from
the accompanying directions it is possible for a trained dyer to
recognize at once the class to which the dyestuff belongs. But it is
impossible for him, excepting after a long, tedious and often very
troublesome analysis, to tell just what member or members of that
particular class is contained in any given package. For this reason
the dyer who has to depend on them for an important piece of work is
in much the same position as a doctor would be who had to treat a
difficult case with patent medicines compounded after secret formulæ.
In the following chapters, a discussion of each class of dyestuffs,
and an explanation of their application and general properties will
be followed by lists of three or four of the very best colors, sold
by the New York agents of six of the largest and most reliable color
manufacturers.
Workers wishing to obtain these dyes in comparatively large
quantities, say one pound and upwards, can get them by writing
directly to the addresses in the following table:
_Badische_— The Badische Anilin & Soda Fabrik,
128 Duane St.,
N. Y. City.
_Cassella_— The Cassella Co.,
184 Front St.,
N. Y. City.
_Elberfeld_—The Farbenfabriken of Elberfeld Co.,
117 Hudson St.,
N. Y. City.
_Kalle_— Kalle & Co.,
530 Canal St.,
N. Y. City.
_Klipstein_—A. Klipstein & Co.,
Agent for Society of Chemical Industry of Basle,
654 Greenwich St.,
N. Y. City.
_Metz_— Farbwerke-Hoechst Co., formerly H. A. Metz & Co.,
Agent for the Meister Lucius & Bruning Co.,
122 Hudson St.,
N. Y. City.
N. B. Further information concerning dyestuffs, apparatus, textiles,
chemicals, etc., connected with this work may be obtained on writing
to the author at 7 West 43rd St., New York.
THE NAMING OF MODERN DYESTUFFS
It is important to remember that, in order to identify a color
by name, it is necessary to know three things: first, the trade
name; second, the shade, or distinguishing, letter; and third, the
manufacturer or agent. The trade name sometimes bears a reference
to the class, properties, or color of the dye, as “fast acid blue”;
or to its chemical composition, as “methylene blue,” or “diamine
red”; but in most cases it is simply an arbitrary name, given by the
original discoverer when the patents were issued, or assigned later
by the manufacturer or his local agents.
The letter or letters, following the name, refer generally to the
shade, as for instance, B for blue, R for red, Y or G for yellow
(German _gelb_), and so on. Thus “methyl violet” is sold in brands
running all the way from 6 B to 6 R—that is, from full purple shades
that are very close to blue, to bright violet shades, very close to
red. Sometimes, however, the letter refers to the composition of
the dye or its class, as “fuchsine S” (German _sauer_) often called
acid fuchsine or acid magenta; or “alizarine blue, D,” when the D
indicates a “direct” cotton color. And sometimes the letter F is used
to indicate fastness to light, in which case “F F” would signify a
brand of very unusual fastness, for that particular class of colors
at any rate.
But not infrequently the letter is merely a mark applied for purposes
of identification, whose significance cannot easily be learned by
those not in the business of color selling, even when it is not a
secret closely guarded by the particular firm supplying the dyestuff.
For this reason, the name of the manufacturer or agent should
_always_ be added to the color name and letter, if it is important
to get a particular color in any case. The best of the older dyes
are manufactured by all of the larger firms, of substantially the
same strength and shades, although often not under the same names.
The later colors, whose patents have not expired, are of course the
individual property of the different manufacturers, and can be,
and are, marketed by them under any name they like to give them.
Accordingly it frequently happens that two different firms may sell,
under the same name, two entirely different colors; it would be
impossible to tell which dyestuff was intended unless the firm name
were attached.
But with these three essentials correctly given—name, brand, and
maker—a color can be identified and obtained true in composition and
shade, even after the lapse of many years.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE COAL-TAR COLORS AVAILABLE FOR CRAFTSMEN.
_Class Name._
| _Materials on which to be used._
| | _How applied._
| | | _How developed._
| | | | _How finished._
| | | |
I. Direct Cotton or Salt Colors:
| Cotton, linen, and artificial silk. Rarely wool and silk.
| | In boiling water, with addition of salt.
| | | | By rinsing in water.
| | | |
II. Sulphur Colors:
| Cotton and linen. Rarely silk.
| | In hot or lukewarm water, with addition of soda, sodium
| | sulphide, salt, and Turkey red oil.
| | | By exposure to air after wringing.
| | | | By washing in a hot soap bath, and rinsing.
| | | |
III. Indigo or Vat Colors:
| Cotton and linen. Rarely silk. Also as stencil pastes on cotton
| and linen.
| | In hot or warm water, with addition of caustic soda and
| | sodium hydrosulphite.
| | | By exposure to air after wringing. Some colors must be
| | | developed by boiling in a soap bath.
| | | | By washing in a hot soap bath, and rinsing.
| | | | Stencilled work, by steaming and washing in hot
| | | | soap bath.
| | | |
IV. Basic Colors:
| Raffia, straw, rattan, and basketry in general. Artificial silk.
| Leather. Rarely wool and silk. Also as stencil pastes on cotton,
| linen, and silk.
| | In hot or warm water, with addition of a little acetic acid
| | (vinegar).
| | | | Raffia, etc., finished by rinsing in water.
| | | | Leather by rubbing with wax when dry. Stencilled
| | | | work, by steaming and passing through a weak bath
| | | | of Tartar Emetic.
| | | |
V. Acid Colors:
| Wool, silk, and feathers. Sometimes leather. Rarely rattan and
| basketry.
| | In hot or cold water with addition (for wool) of sulphuric
| | acid and Glauber’s salt. For silk add soap and acid. For
| | leather add a little acetic acid. For feathers add oxalic
| | acid or formic acid.
| | | | Wool needs very careful rinsing in water, to
| | | | remove every trace of acid. Silk finished by
| | | | a cold soap bath, followed by a weak bath of
| | | | acetic acid. Leather finished with wax. Feathers
| | | | finished with starch.
| | | |
CHAPTER III
DIRECT COTTON OR SALT COLORS
Among the many changes made in the art of dyeing since the
introduction of the coal-tar dyestuffs, perhaps the most important
has been the gradual overcoming of the necessity for mordanting the
textiles before coloring them in the dye-bath. Almost all of the old
vegetable dyes were mordant dyes; that is, the color could not be
fastened to the fibre, whether wool, cotton, linen, or even silk,
unless the latter had been impregnated with some chemical which would
act as a _mordant_ to—(i.e., would combine with and hold) the color.
These mordants were, in general, the salts of some metal, aluminium,
tin, chromium, and iron salts being the ones in common use; and the
processes involved in properly mordanting the goods were in many
cases—notably in the case of madder and the Turkey red process—far
more difficult and tedious and expensive than the actual dyeing.
The first dyestuffs discovered, the true aniline dyes, which were
manufactured directly from aniline and from substances strongly
resembling aniline in chemical composition, were at once found to
act in a different manner on textile fibres. Animal fibres like wool
and silk, fur and leather, were dyed by them directly, without the
use of any mordant at all. If the dyestuff were dissolved in water
(the addition of a little acid makes the color dissolve more readily,
but is without other effect) and a wet skein of wool or silk were
immersed in it, and a little heat applied, the color would leave the
liquid, and fasten itself firmly on to the goods.
But with cotton and linen and other vegetable fibres, these dyes
would not work so well. When these materials are warmed in such a
dye-bath, the color does not adhere to the fibres, but washes off
directly in a hot soap bath, if not, indeed, under a stream of clear
hot water. This was noticed by Perkin very soon after his famous
discovery, and, wishing to use his new color for dyeing cotton and
linen as well as silk and wool, he set to work to discover how to
prepare these materials; in short, how to mordant them so that they
too would take firm hold of the color. As will be described later
in the chapter on Basic colors, his experiments soon led to the
introduction and the use of tannic acid and tartar emetic combined,
in a process widely used to this day.
The next class of dyestuffs discovered were the so-called acid
colors, thus named because they all exhibited distinctly acid
properties—that is, they would form salts with the substances known
as bases (of which last, by the way, aniline is an important member).
These colors, like the earlier ones, would dye the animal fibres
directly, but would not color the vegetable fibres, unless the
latter were carefully mordanted with alumina, or iron oxide, or some
similar metallic base. And even this treatment does not give colors
that are fast to washing, so these acid colors are never used on
cotton or linen.
After this came the discovery of alizarine, and an important series
of very fast and very valuable dyes, all of which were characteristic
mordant colors. Even wool and silk, as well as every other textile,
must be carefully mordanted with aluminium, chromium, or iron
salts, in order to have any coloring effect produced by these
dyestuffs. This is the chief reason why, in spite of their beauty
and great permanence, the alizarine and other mordant colors are
being less used every year. At the end of some twelve or thirteen
years after the discovery of the aniline colors, therefore, it was
still impossible to dye cotton with them without a more or less
elaborate mordanting process. And yet the problem did not seem to be
an impossible one. One of the natural dyes, the safflower, already
mentioned, has the property of dyeing cotton pretty, and not very
fugitive, shades of pink and rose colors, directly, without the
necessity for any mordant; and if a natural dyestuff could do that
why could not some artificial ones?
Some thirty years ago, a chemist (one story says that it was a
laboratory boy) while experimenting with a dyestuff which was then
a recent discovery—Congo red, a very brilliant but fugitive and
unstable scarlet color—noticed that while filtering a hot solution
of it through filter paper, the paper was stained deeply, and, which
was more important, the color was not easily washed out with hot
water. This excited his curiosity, and after following the matter
up a little, he found that not only this Congo red, but a whole
series of dyestuffs formed in the same general way, had the power of
dyeing cotton directly. This discovery has practically revolutionized
the whole art of cotton dyeing. From these few bright and pretty,
but distinctly untrustworthy dyes, which were at once named and
advertised as “direct cotton colors,” have sprung great numbers of
dyestuffs—several hundreds at least—of every conceivable shade, and
of late years of every conceivable degree of fastness to light.
All resemble the original Congo red in that they will dye cotton
and linen, if not absolutely fast, at any rate very fairly fast to
washing, in one bath, without the need of any mordants.
This, of course, means that the cost of dyeing cloth with these
dyes is very much less than with the other classes mentioned. And,
by the way, it also explains why, under the name of Turkey red,
so many extremely bad colors have been sold. To dye Turkey red on
cotton, using alizarine, and with the most improved and simplified
methods, necessitates at least six or seven different steps, each
of which requires not only time and expense, but great skill and
care; and any one of them, if carelessly performed, may spoil the
goods. On the other hand, a mere beginner, by using one of the
early, bright, direct colors (quite cheap in itself, because the
patents have expired) can, by boiling the goods for half an hour in a
dye-bath with a little soap and salt in it, produce a piece of cloth
dyed almost the exact shade of the old Turkey red, for probably
one-third, or one-quarter of the price. It will look the same on the
shop counter; will probably sell just as well to the average, or even
to the painstaking customer; but when exposed to air and light for a
few weeks, perhaps even for a few days, will lose its brilliancy, and
turn some queer, dull shade, probably of purple.
Indeed this particular substitution has been going on for some
years on a large scale; and at one time promised to be of some
international importance. The Turkey red dyers in Manchester, a few
years ago, complained bitterly to the English Government that their
market in India was falling off very seriously; and they demanded an
investigation, to know what was the matter.
After careful inquiry by the local officials, word came back that
there was no difference in the taste of the people for bright scarlet
clothes and headgear. Just as much red was worn as ever before. But
active agents of the large German color houses had been going through
the country, introducing some of these cheap direct cotton scarlets
and showing the natives how to use them. And in consequence, up and
down India in all the little towns, even in the villages, local dyers
were at work who, for a few cents, would dye up an old piece of
calico bright red. When it became faded again in a few weeks, they
would dye it over again for a very small sum, thus renewing the same
piece whenever it was desirable to appear in bright, new clothes.
_Names._—These dyes have long been made by all of the great firms,
although two or three have made more of a specialty of them than the
rest. It was soon found that the presence of common (table) salt in
the dyestuffs was valuable, as lessening the waste of dyestuff in the
dye-liquor, and also increasing the fastness to washing of the dyed
goods. For this reason the common name given to this class is that of
“Salt Colors.” Owing, however, to the fact that Congo red, the first
discovered of the whole class, was derived from the chemical known as
benzidine, these salt colors are sometimes referred to, in general,
as the “Congo,” or as the “benzidine” dyes. Besides this they are
frequently known as “cotton colors,” or “direct cotton colors.” The
different manufacturers, however, have assigned certain class names
to their own dyestuffs, as follows:
Benzo (_Elberfeld_); Diamine (_Cassella_); Dianil (_Metz_);
Mikado (_Elberfeld_); Naphthamine (_Kalle_);
Oxamine (_Badische_); Phenamine (_Badische_).
_Uses._—These colors are chiefly used for dyeing cotton, linen,
and paper. They take particularly well on mercerized cotton, and
on some varieties of artificial silk. They can also be used to dye
wool and silk, and, indeed, in many cases give colors faster, both
to light and to washing, on these fibres than on cotton. As a rule
they will not dye animal fibres excepting at a high temperature—near
the boiling point—and in an acid bath. Whereas cotton and linen are
preferably dyed in an alkaline or at least a neutral bath, and, while
they must be boiled in the dye-bath for at all permanent results,
will take the color as a stain at quite low temperatures.
For this reason these dyes are often used for dyeing even shades in
one bath, upon mixed goods—that is, wool and cotton, cotton and silk,
etc. The goods are first dyed in a lukewarm bath till the cotton is
nearly the proper shade, and then, on heating, the wool or silk will
take up the color and, before long, catch up with the cotton. It
must, however, be remembered that on cotton and linen these dyes are
not, as a rule, at all fast to washing, unless they have been well
boiled with the goods. When dyed on silk at a boil, they are fast to
hot soap and water, a fact which, sometimes, is of much importance.
DYEING DIRECTIONS
=Dye-bath.=—The color must first be dissolved in water, care being
taken not to leave any undissolved lumps or specks of color floating
around in, or settled at the bottom of, the dye-bath. For this
reason it is generally best, in all dyeing operations, first of all
to make a decidedly strong solution of the color, by dissolving a
considerable quantity of it (depending of course on the amount of
goods to be dyed) in hot water, in a pitcher or saucepan. In the
dyehouse this would be called a “stock solution,” and would always be
made of a definite strength,—say five parts of color to one hundred
of water—and kept well covered up. Sometimes in hot weather it would
be treated with a little preservative like benzoate of soda, so that
it could be used at any time it was needed. When this color solution
is added to the dye-bath, it should always be carefully strained
through a piece of cheesecloth or any other fine medium that will
catch the specks and undissolved lumps. Otherwise spots are liable
to appear, on the finished goods, which it is almost impossible to
eradicate without stripping off every trace of color from the dyed
material.
_Water._—The dye-bath is prepared with plain water. The amount
necessary for each lot of goods can only be told by experience. For
some classes of dyes, like the Acid colors and the Basic colors,
to be described later, the quantity of water makes but little
difference. But for dark shades with these Salt colors it is best not
to have more than enough water to thoroughly soak, and comfortably
cover, the wetted goods, with enough room to stir and turn them
easily. The dye-bath is now set on the stove to warm up and, when
dyeing light or medium shades, some soap is usually dissolved in it.
This is not absolutely necessary but helps to make the color go on
more evenly, and penetrate the fibres better.
_Soap._—For dyeing purposes in general, any pure, carefully made
soap acts satisfactorily. For silk dyeing, and especially for silk
finishing, it is said that greater lustre can be gained with olive
oil (Castile) soap. But when this cannot be obtained, Ivory soap or
Pears’ soap or, in fact, any good brand of bath or toilet soap will
do almost as well. For the washing and finishing of wool and silk the
use of strong laundry soaps should be avoided if possible, because
they usually contain alkali, in the form of borax or of carbonate
of soda, which is liable to “tender the goods.” For cotton and linen
dyeing and finishing, this does not make any difference. The easiest
way to add the soap to the dye-bath is to use it in one of the wire
soap-shakers, which has a convenient handle, and holds half a cake or
even a whole cake of soap at one time.
=Even Dyeing.=—The goods should be well washed, rinsed, and wrung
out, so as to be sure that they are free from dirt and grease, and
have been thoroughly and evenly wet. They are then placed in the
dye-bath, completely under the liquid, and stirred round and round
and turned over and over with the dye-sticks. The chief objects in
stirring are, first, to prevent part of the goods from resting on
the bottom and then getting more heat than the rest of the material,
in which case, naturally, it will become darker when finished; and
second, to prevent the outside portion of the goods from getting more
color than the inner portions. Accordingly the goods, when placed in
the dye-bath, must be well opened up and, excepting when deliberately
making patterns by the method described later under the name of
“Tied and Dyed Work,” they should not be tied or entangled in knots
or bunches. Every part must be equally exposed, by the turning and
lifting and stirring, to the action of the color solution.
If only light shades are desired, the goods are heated and turned
until the proper shade has been reached—remembering always that,
unless the color has been boiled on, it is likely to be only a stain
which will wash off easily.
_Salt._—For full and indeed for medium shades, it is customary to
add to the dye-bath some agent—usually table salt or, when the shade
is not very dark, phosphate of soda—which will make the color less
soluble in the dye-liquor and will tend to throw it on the fibre.
For, after all, there is comparatively little affinity between the
cotton fibre and the dyestuff (far less than between silk or wool
and the Acid or Basic colors), and when a skein is warmed or even
boiled in the dye-bath a large proportion of the color remains in the
liquid. The bath is not “exhausted” as the dyers say. Hence, if we
try to dye full shades with these colors dissolved in water only, or
in soap and water, it can only be done by using large quantities of
the dyestuff, most of which will be wasted in the spent dye-liquor.
For dark shades, then, where there is little danger of uneven dyeing,
the goods are usually dyed for a short time with the color dissolved
in hot water. And then, to deepen the shade, the goods are lifted,
and common salt added in considerable quantities, three or four
tablespoonfuls to the gallon, and stirred round till it is dissolved.
Then the goods are put back and well boiled for half an hour or so,
before the dyeing is considered complete. The presence of salt, by
increasing the temperature of the boiling bath, also helps to make
the dyed goods fast to washing.
Soap cannot be used in the presence of so much salt for fear of its
depositing on the fibre in spots and so causing trouble. For medium
shades, however, where it is well to use soap in the dye-bath so
as to have the color go on the fibre evenly, a little phosphate of
soda is often employed instead of salt, one or two tablespoonfuls to
the gallon, to diminish the waste of color, without making the soap
insoluble.
For the darker shades it is particularly important to thoroughly boil
the goods for half an hour or more, before taking them out of the
dye-bath. Otherwise the dyestuff will not penetrate the fibre, but
will simply stain the surface, and will not only be easily washed
off, with very mild soaping, but, when dry, will be apt to crack and
rub.
_Finishing._—After the materials have been dyed as just described,
they should be taken out of the dye-bath, rinsed with water to wash
off the excess of dye-liquor, and then shaken out and dried.
When used in this way the best dyes of this class, such as those
listed a little further on, will give, on cotton and linen, shades
that are very fast to light, and fairly fast to washing. On wool and
silk the shades are fast to both light and washing. For purposes of
comparison it may be stated here what is generally meant by these
terms.
_Fastness to Light._—The test for light-fastness is usually made by
partially covering a dyed skein with a piece of wood, or heavy piece
of blotting paper, and exposing it to direct sunlight, back of a
window with southern exposure. At intervals the skein is taken out
and the color studied, and it is then easy to see whether any change
has taken place in the portion of the goods exposed to the light.
If the goods have faded appreciably in the space of one week, the
dyestuff is considered _not fast_.
If the color changes after two weeks’ exposure, but not after one
week, it is to be considered _fairly fast_.
If it stands for two weeks but fades in four weeks it is to be called
_fast_.
And if it resists, without appreciable change, the action of the
summer sunlight for full four weeks, it is called _very fast_.
It should be remembered, in this connection, that the comparative
fastness to light depends largely (a) upon the materials to be dyed,
and (b) upon the depth and shade of color used in the test. For
instance, if a skein of heavy cotton yarn, and one of very fine,
brilliant, artificial silk are dyed the same color, and exposed to
light under the same conditions, the cotton skein will hold its
color longer than the silk. The latter, being semi-transparent,
allows the sunlight to pierce it through and through, while the more
opaque cotton gives some distinct protection to the color that has
penetrated beneath the surface. So, too, a dark shade of any given
color will stand the light much better than a very light or delicate
shade, for the same general reason. The color beneath the surface is
protected from the direct action of the sun’s rays by the surface
color.
_Fastness to Washing._—The test for washing-fastness is made somewhat
differently. A skein dyed a full shade with the color is twisted up
with two white skeins, one of wool and the other of cotton, and
the three are thoroughly scoured for ten minutes in a strong bath
of good quality laundry soap, heated to 140°F. This temperature is
uncomfortably hot for the hands and yet is well below the boiling
point. A _fast_ color is one where, with this treatment, neither the
soap liquor nor either one of the skeins becomes colored.
If the soap liquor is colored but neither one of the skeins, the dye
is called _fairly fast_.
If the soap bath is tinged, and one or the other of the skeins
becomes colored at the same time, the dye is considered _not fast_.
It must, however, be borne in mind that before making this
washing-test, all excess of dye-liquor must first be removed by
thorough rinsing. And it should be remembered that even the fastest
of the Salt colors, as well as of the Acid and Basic colors described
later, when applied directly to the fibre, without mordanting or
after-treating, are never as fast to washing as those where the
dyestuff is fixed or developed in an insoluble form in the fibre,
by the action of the air, as are the Sulphur and Vat colors—or
by the action of mordants, as with the Alizarine colors—or by
after-treatment with certain special chemicals, as with the Salt
colors in the process described below. All dyes can, sooner or later,
be dissociated from the fibres to which they are attached. But if
they are in an insoluble condition they drop off in the form of a
powder, and are washed clean off, and leave sharp, clear outlines
on the dyed goods. If, however, they have gone on in solution
they will go off in solution, and are liable to _bleed_, and stain
light-colored fibres near them.
The earlier dyestuffs of this class were deservedly criticised as
being, even when carefully applied, much given to bleeding, and also
distinctly fugitive to the action of sunlight.
Of late years the quality of these dyestuffs has greatly improved,
and the best of them, like those mentioned below, when carefully dyed
on cotton, are fast, if not very fast to light, although for washing
the very best can hardly be classed even as fairly fast, without
after-treatment.
_List of Selected Dyestuffs._—
Badische— Oxamine Fast Red, F
Cotton, Yellow, G I
Stilbene Yellow, G K
Oxamine Blue, B
Cotton Black, E, extra
Cassella— Diamine Fast Red, F
Diamine Fast Yellow, G G
Diamine Fast Blue, F F G
Diamine Fast Black, F
Elberfeld— Benzo Fast Red, 8 B L
Benzo Fast Yellow, 4 B
Brilliant Fast Black, 4 B
Pluto Black, F, extra
Kalle— Naphthamine Fast Red, H
Naphthamine Fast Yellow, 2 G L
Naphthamine Fast Blue, 4 B L
Naphthamine Fast Violet, R L
Naphthamine Direct Black
Metz— Dianil Fast Scarlet, 4 B S
Dianil Orange, G
Dianil Yellow, O O
Dianil Fast Blue, 3 B
Dianil Fast Black, conc.
As above mentioned, even the very best dyes belonging to this class
of Salt colors, give on cotton and linen results only “fairly fast”
to washing. As the modern laundress is not averse to using stronger
agents than good laundry soap in her washtub, and not infrequently
indulges in considerable amounts of washing soda (sodium carbonate)
and even of bleaching powder, to clean quickly a dirty piece of
goods, dyes that are “fairly fast” according to the regular standard,
will, in practice, need some care spent on them if they are to hold
their color for long periods. Against light the best ones are almost
as fast as any dyes known, but none of them are a match for the
Sulphur colors, or especially the Vat colors, when exposed to severe
washing.
_After-treatment._—The professional dyer, who is occasionally
called upon to produce fast colors with these dyes, and even with
the inferior members of this class, has found various methods of
after-treatment, by which the colors are rendered more permanent.
A favorite process, where the dyer is enough of a chemist to carry
it out, consists of making an entirely new dyestuff in the fibre,
generally of an entirely different shade, and with much greater power
of resistance to washing and to light, by treating the dyed goods
first with a mixture of sodium nitrite and of sulphuric acid, and,
after this, passing them through a solution of some organic chemical
such as carbolic acid, alpha- or beta-naphthol, or others known as
developers.
This process, known as “diazotizing and developing,” is considerably
used in the trade, especially for various shades of black, but is too
complicated and delicate for craftsmen in general.
A simpler process is to warm the dyed goods for five or ten minutes
in a weak solution of the orange-colored salt, bichromate of potash,
acidified with a little acetic acid—or of the not uncommon chemical,
sulphate of copper, long known to chemists as blue vitriol.
When the best dyes are used, like those in the preceding list, it
is not often necessary to use either of these reagents. But when,
as sometimes happens, one is obliged to use dyes of this general
class, bought at the country store without a chance of knowing how
fast they are, it is well to know about it. For a piece of goods the
size of an ordinary linen skirt, the after-treating bath would be
made as follows: In two and a half gallons of hot water, dissolve two
tablespoonfuls of sulphate of copper, one tablespoonful of bichromate
of potash, and two teaspoonfuls of ordinary acetic acid (equivalent,
say, to three or four teaspoonfuls of strong vinegar). The goods,
after dyeing and rinsing, but before drying, should be soaked in this
bath and heated for ten minutes until not far from the boiling point.
They should then be taken out, rinsed carefully, and dried. This
after-treatment does not benefit every single color of this class,
but it helps greatly the fastness to light and to washing of almost
all of them. The chief objection to it, besides the time and expense,
is that the shade of the finished goods is often considerably
changed by the process.
_Properties and Uses of the Salt Colors._—Generally speaking, the
shades produced by the individual members of this group cover all
the colors of the rainbow and include several good greys. It is
hard, however, to get a full deep black on cotton or linen with
these dyes, without using the “diazotizing and developing” process
of after-treatment. The dyes go on the fibre in a soluble form, and
unless a developing process like this is used they combine directly
with the fibre, and do not form a coating or layer upon it, as do
some of the “developed” dyestuffs. Accordingly, no matter how fully
or how deeply we dye a piece of yarn or cloth with a black dye of
this class, the finished goods will show _grey_, a very dark grey,
to be sure, but still grey, and not a flat, heavy, true black. The
color of most of the salt blacks is greatly improved, however—as well
as their fastness to light and washing—by soaking the dyed goods,
after rinsing, in a solution containing four or five spoonfuls of
formaldehyde to the gallon.
This same property, however, of combining directly with the fibre,
makes the colors brighter and more brilliant than many of the other
classes, especially in the lighter shades. Accordingly for bright,
pretty shades of pinks, blues, yellows, and of mixed shades, fast to
light, but not very fast to washing, very easily and simply applied,
these colors are extremely valuable. For instance, in dyeing large
quantities of bright colors on calico or cheesecloth, for some
special occasion, as a pageant or spectacle, these are the colors to
use.
Another great advantage they possess is that they dye true; that is,
they do not alter their color when exposed to the air, and the color
of the finished goods can be fairly estimated from the color of the
dye-bath.
Accordingly, the student is strongly urged to practise the art
of dyeing with these colors. They are cheap and can be readily
obtained, although not always of the very best quality, under the
name of Diamond Dyes for cotton, ezy dyes, etc., from druggists and
grocerymen all over the country.
They can be easily applied to cheesecloth, muslin, and other
inexpensive materials, and if care is taken to soak and boil the
goods thoroughly, to linens and heavy cottons. In case of necessity
they can be used on wool and silk, but, as a rule, their use is
limited to vegetable fibres. They are particularly valuable to
amateur dyers and to beginners in the art, because they have great
“levelling” power; that is, it is easy to dye evenly with them.
On the other hand, it is a nuisance, oftentimes, to have to boil the
goods, and even then the colors are not really fast to washing. At
any rate, before proceeding to the study of the more permanent but
more complicated Sulphur and Vat colors, the art of dyeing even and
rainbow shades and at least the beginnings of the art of combining
and matching shades should be carefully and conscientiously worked
out with these often despised, but really very useful and valuable,
Salt colors.
CHAPTER IV
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COLOR DYEING
Directly the student has mastered the instruction contained in the
three previous chapters, and can use the dyeing apparatus and the
unmixed dyestuffs so as to get reasonably fast colors on cotton and
linen goods, it is time to attack the more difficult subject of
dyeing to shade. This art is not an easy one, by any means, and only
a few fundamental principles can be learned from a book. To make any
real progress in it, constant and continuous practice is necessary;
even then, unless the student is naturally gifted with an eye capable
of readily detecting any changes of color, and has trained it to
distinguish and identify the causes of such changes, little success
in the matching of colors can be hoped for.
This does not mean, however, that unless a dyer can match shades
perfectly, he cannot turn out very interesting and, indeed, beautiful
results. But it does mean that he will find it difficult, if not
impossible, to reproduce such results, and will be frequently
handicapped in trying to utilize his dyeing skill and knowledge
commercially.
The beginner thinks—not unnaturally perhaps—that in order to get
any considerable variety of shades it is necessary to have on hand a
large and varied assortment of dyestuffs; and it is consequently a
surprise to find that skilled workers keep in stock chiefly a good
supply of blue, yellow, and red only. Black is convenient and useful,
but not essential, excepting for special purposes. By mixing these
three “primary” colors it is possible to get every conceivable shade
needed. And another point, which will be emphasized below and which
is also likely to be a surprise, is that practically every pretty and
agreeable shade, no matter how delicate, is composed of all three of
these primary colors. Blue and yellow produce green, blue and red
produce violet, and yellow and red produce orange, while the addition
of the third or “complementary” color to any of these combinations of
two makes _grey_, when all three colors are perfectly balanced, and
when one color or another predominates, it is greyed and softened by
the presence of small quantities of the other two.
Experiments with Single Colors
The way to study color dyeing is, first of all, to get a clear idea
of the effect of different strengths of each of these three primary
colors in producing both light and dark shades of a single color.
This can be easily accomplished with the red, blue, and yellow of
the Salt dyes described in the last chapter. Dissolve each color
separately and keep them in separate dye-pots so that you can readily
dye pieces of cheesecloth or other cheap, easy-dyeing materials
any light, medium, or dark shade, to serve as a basis for future
comparisons.
[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF PRIMARY COLORS
Two color shades—Red + Blue = Violet
Red + Yellow = Orange
Yellow + Blue = Green
Complementary colors—Red + Blue + Yellow = Grey
Red + Green = }
Blue + Orange = } Grey
Yellow + Violet = }]
_Even Dyeing._—First wet the cloth or yarn thoroughly by soaking
in hot water, then rinse well and wring it dry—if necessary, using
a wringer. The dyestuff should already be carefully dissolved in a
little boiling water. Pour some of this solution (not too much, for
the shades should all be pretty light) into the dye-pot half full of
lukewarm water. Then quickly and wholly immerse the wet material,
stirring and working about with the dye-sticks, and let the whole
heat steadily until it boils. After a few minutes’ boiling take out
the material and rinse in cold water until it stops bleeding. When
this is carefully done, good, even, and smooth shades will result.
_Shaded Effects._—Of more real interest, although an abomination
to most professional dyers, are the shaded effects. Instead of
trying to get even, smooth colors, the cloth is intentionally dyed
unevenly to get effects of light and shade in the color, otherwise
impossible. This does not mean that a skein or piece of cloth badly
dyed or discolored by some accident or carelessness should be
proudly exhibited as a piece of really artistic dyeing, as is done
occasionally, by some workers, with painful results. It is only when
the work is done carefully and thoughtfully that shaded or so-called
“rainbow” effects may be obtained upon skeins, basket materials, and
cloth, which are distinctly interesting and beautiful, though very
different from the regular work of the professional dyers.
Many methods of obtaining unique results in this work will occur to
the student, after some practical experience. Perhaps the best way
to begin is to take a piece of cheesecloth, cut in the form of a
scarf—say two yards or so in length—and hemmed on both ends, if it
is to be kept for exhibition or future use. Before it is wet, tie
it in a rather tight knot in the middle, or, if the scarf is long
enough, two knots about six or eight inches from each end. For this
first piece tie a very simple knot by merely folding the scarf over
on itself and pulling the goods tight. Then wet the cloth thoroughly
and dye quickly in the boiling dye-liquor; rinse off, and untie
the knots. The open part of the cloth will be found dyed the full
strength, and where there were knots there will be shaded places
varying from the full color down to white.
Another method is to take the wetted scarf in the middle and
gradually lower the ends into the hot dye-liquor, stopping just
before the middle reaches the dye. If carefully done this will give
regularly shaded effects running from white or very light at the
centre, to heavy, full shades at the ends. Of course, if preferred,
the ends can be kept out of the dye-liquor and the middle portions
immersed. This will give a scarf that is dark in the centre and light
at each end—which is not so good a color arrangement, ordinarily, as
the light centre and dark ends.
The same can be done with a square piece of cloth, well wetted: this
will shade in an interesting manner, if held in the middle and dipped
slowly and gradually. Further developments of this work, known as
“Tied and Dyed Work,” are described in a following chapter.
Experiments with the Secondary Colors
After the above methods have been fairly mastered, the student
should make some experiments in which two of the primary colors are
mixed together, or better, superimposed one on the other to show the
“secondary” shades produced by these combinations. This can be done
by mixing the colors two by two, until three baths of green, violet,
and orange respectively are formed as before. Then try dyeing first
for even colors and later for the shaded effects.
The most interesting experiments in this line are made by the
so-called “double shading” method. Here the same baths of straight
primary colors—red and blue and yellow—should be used as in the
earlier experiments; but the goods are first dyed in one bath, and
then after-dyed or “topped” in a second color.
A scarf of cheesecloth is good for a first attempt. This, well wet,
is held at one end and very slowly lowered into the hot bath, until
all but about six inches of the entire length is immersed in the dye.
This much is left free from color. Try a blue dye color for this
series of shades, fading evenly and smoothly from the deepest full
blue at one end to a pure white at the other.
After rinsing with water till the bleeding is over, reverse the
scarf, holding it by the opposite end, and lower it slowly and
gradually into a bath of, let us say, yellow, keeping about six
inches out of the dye as before. This will produce a scarf shaded
from clear blue at one end to clear yellow at the other end and
showing the whole range of green shades produced by mixing these two
colors, along its length.
Similar tests made with red and blue, and then with red and yellow,
will emphasize to the student’s mind the fact that green is formed
from blue and yellow; violet from red and blue; and orange from red
and yellow; and that each combination gives an infinite variety of
intermediate shades, according to the comparative strength of the
individual dyes.
Matching Colors
The next step is to dye some pieces evenly with green, violet, and
orange, made by two of the primary colors, and then to try matching
these with fresh, newly-mixed baths of the same dyes. It will be
found here that success depends upon going slowly; and upon beginning
with light shades and building the color up to the desired strength
carefully, by means of successive dippings. Note that the color of
cloth when wet is much darker than when dry. Some dyers hold the
wet cloth to the bright sky and look through it, to get an idea of
what the finished color will be like; but positively certain and
satisfactory results are arrived at only by wetting the sample to be
matched or drying the piece that is being dyed, so that both sample
and piece are equally wet or dry, while their color is being compared.
The real difficulty of color dyeing is not met with until the student
tries to obtain shades embodying all three of the primary colors.
A very few experiments will quickly show that with most modern
dyestuffs it is hard to get soft, pleasant tones with the use of
only two colors. Natural colors, as we find them in the sky, water,
meadow, and woodlands, are never pure; they are invariably mixed.
And our eyes are so accustomed to them that shades dyed with simple
or pure colors look hard, cold, and inharmonious. Mixtures of two
colors are better and softer than single colors, but still rather
hard. But when the secondary shade resulting from the combination of
two primary colors is mixed with even a small quantity of the third
primary color, the result is invariably a soft and pleasing tone.
The above statements presuppose that it is possible, in practice, to
obtain good dyestuffs in each class, which are absolutely pure, clean
shades of blue, yellow, and red without any admixture whatever. As a
matter of fact, while the artificial dyestuffs are much more pure,
and hence much more hard and brilliant than the best natural colors,
they still in many, if not indeed, in most cases, when carefully
studied, show shades that are mixed and not pure. It is very rare to
find a blue that does not incline a little to the yellow (a Blue G as
it would probably be labelled) or else contain a trace of violet or
red (Blue R, or RR). The reds are almost invariably either scarlets,
containing a trace of yellow, or crimsons containing blue. And the
yellows, also, are very apt to tend towards orange or occasionally
show a trace of green.
This, of course, complicates the problem for the practical dyer
greatly, and means that instead of being able to cover the whole
range of shades with a red, blue, and yellow, it is frequently, if
not always, necessary to have some mixed colors, giving sharp, clear
shades of violet, green, and orange respectively, to obtain certain
effects.
The following diagram will perhaps make this more clear. In this
the three primary colors have been divided, each into two shades as
indicated by the shade letters, R meaning red, B blue, and G yellow
(German _gelb_) shades of the colors. By combining these colors as
shown in the table, clean, clear shades will be given, whereas other
combinations would be likely to spoil the shades.
[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF MIXED COLORS
Red B + Blue R = Violet
Blue R + Red B = Violet
Yellow R + Red G = Orange
Red B + Orange = Red G
Blue R + Green = Blue G
Yellow R + Green = Yellow G
Red G + Yellow R = Orange
Blue G + Violet = Blue R
Yellow B + Orange = Yellow R
Red G + Violet = Red B
Blue G + Yellow B = Green
Yellow B + Blue G = Green]
Take, for example, a special case, namely to turn a piece of crimson
calico into a full rich scarlet. The crimson color contains a great
deal of red, mixed with a little blue. If the piece were after-dyed,
or “topped,” with yellow, even in small quantities, the result would
probably be “muddy,” the yellow and blue together being in such
strength as to seriously diminish the strength of the red, and make
it more or less brown in shade.
If, however, a reddish shade of orange were used for shading, instead
of yellow, the red of the mixture would be constantly increased,
while the yellow was “killing” the blue, i.e., turning it, with a
little red, into grey; and before long the crimson, or bluish shade
of red, would turn first into a true but softened red, with neither
blue nor yellow predominating, and finally into a scarlet, with
distinct traces of yellow.
In making these Three-color Shades, therefore, the component parts
of each dyestuff used must be studied; and in every case care must
be taken to have the third color, whatever it is, added in such
minute quantities as only to _soften_ and not to spoil the first
shade. A teaspoonful, sometimes even a few drops of a solution of
one strong color, will generally be enough to soften, and take the
edge off, some gallons of dye-liquor containing a hard, clear mixture
of the other two. A cupful, on the other hand, or even two or three
tablespoonfuls might utterly spoil the bath and turn it into “mud,”
as a dyer would say.
It is worth mentioning here that, as a general thing, it is
distinctly more interesting to build up shades by dipping first in
one bath, and then topping with the second and the third color than
it is to mix the different colors to the desired shade first and then
dye the material in the single bath. On a small scale there is the
same difference, although not so marked and less easily noticed, as
that between even dyeing and rainbow dyeing. There is often a loss
in regularity and evenness, but the gain in life and light when one
color shines through another which covers it more than compensates.
This overlaying is not so perceptible in the even dyeing of fine,
thin materials, whether yarn or cloth; but with coarse, heavy yarns
and thick textiles, effects can be obtained by after-dyeing which
cannot be approached when the goods are dyed in one bath.
_Matching Shades._—Some people, I believe, go so far as to say that,
in order to be really expert at true shade matching when using the
three colors in dyeing, a dyer must have begun to learn the art in
the person of his grandfather, ninety or a hundred years ago, and
kept in practise ever since.
It certainly is true that heredity and early training both have
a great deal to do with skill in this art, and a good color dyer
will show an almost uncanny instinct, as he instantly picks out
differences in shade which an untrained eye would never notice, and
without any hesitation prescribes the exact remedy for the defect.
Still there are plenty of good, even first-class dyers, nowadays, who
have learned their art quite late in life, with the aid of a good eye
and intelligent perseverance.
The chief rule to remember is this: Red, blue, and yellow, when
mixed in equal strength, make a neutral grey or black. Accordingly
any one color will form grey or, as we may say, will _neutralize_,
or be _complementary_ to a mixture of the other two. Thus red will
form grey with green; blue with orange, and yellow with violet.
Accordingly if there is too much red in the dye-bath, it can be
killed by the addition of a little green; and vice versa. The same
is true with the other complementary colors. If this simple rule be
kept clearly in mind, most of the problems of matching colors and of
getting pleasant and harmonious shades can be worked out easily. It
is chiefly a matter of practice, and perseverance.
The student is strongly advised to attack this study in three ways:
First, mix the three primary colors together in one bath, to form
definite shades—grey, brown, olive green, steel blue, etc.; then
dye the cloth in the bath to see how the colors look when on the
materials and dried.
Second, to dye a piece of cloth one mixed shade and by topping with
other colors, to alter that shade to match some shade previously
selected. For instance, dye a piece a good shade of reddish or copper
brown, and then try to “kill” the red in it without materially
deepening the shade, i.e., change it from a copper brown to a greyish
or dirt brown of about the same depth of color.
Very pretty and instructive experiments can be made along this line
of building up soft grey shades, by dyeing the cloth successively
in weak baths of the three primary colors. As fast as one color
predominates, it can be killed by dipping into successive baths of
the other two.
Attractive scarfs and table covers can be made with a little care,
by knotting the material and dyeing light rainbow shades of the
three colors, one after the other, changing the knots or tied
portions after each bath. Properly done, this will produce remarkably
interesting, opalescent effects, each color being toned and softened
by the other two, although predominating in different parts of the
material.
When, in the operation of rainbow dyeing, strongly contrasting colors
have been used with unhappy results (such as the red, yellow, and
blue tri-color effects that some students will produce) try the
effects of toning, or “covering,” as it is often called, with some
soft, neutral color which combines in itself all the contrasting
tones, or else with a color that is complementary to the most
obnoxious one, softening that one and strengthening the weaker
shades. Grey, of course, can be used for this; but in general, a soft
shade of brown will be found very valuable for taking the edge off
of too violent contrasts. The permanganate brown (Manganese bronze),
described in the first chapter, can be used with advantage for this
purpose.
It is not difficult for a skilful dyer to match any desired shade by
using three complementary colors, red, blue, and yellow, provided, of
course, that these are pure and unmixed. It often happens, however,
that after matching carefully a soft mixed shade by daylight, the
colors appear entirely different when viewed by artificial light,
and especially by ordinary gaslight. Daylight, as we are accustomed
to it, is comparatively evenly balanced in color, is in fact a white
light. But artificial light as a rule is distinctly colored, and
it is difficult, though now not impossible, to find a light that so
closely resembles daylight that colors can be matched at night.
If the light, for instance, has a bluish tinge, like some kinds of
electric light, it will kill the corresponding orange in a shade,
while yellow light, such as commonly results from the use of oil,
candles, or gas (less marked when incandescent mantles are used),
dulls and even blackens lavender, violet, and purple shades, while
having little or no effect upon yellow, orange, and green.
It is therefore advisable when matching shades that are to be used at
night not to use three-color shades wherever that is possible, but to
get the desired soft effects by covering directly with grey (i.e.,
light shades of black) on top of a single or two-color shade.
CHAPTER V
THE SULPHUR COLORS
Nearly thirty years ago one of the French color houses put on the
market a new dyestuff which it named “Cachou de Laval”; Cachou being
the same as catechu or “cutch,” the natural brown dyestuff long known
and used in the East, and Laval being the name of the town in France
where one of its discoverers was born.
This dyestuff was made by heating sawdust, bran, turf, leaves, or
other vegetable substances with the strongly reducing alkaline salt,
_sodium sulphide_, in the absence of air. The product, dissolved in
water, makes a dark green solution which, after standing in the air a
short time, turns brown and deposits a fine brownish powder. Cotton
or linen, heated in a fresh solution of this dyestuff, is colored
green, but, when wrung out and exposed to air, the green color, which
easily washes out, changes into a very permanent, though dull and
uninteresting, shade of greyish brown.
This Cachou de Laval was not a success, commercially, because of its
poor color. It existed, however, as a chemical curiosity for some
twelve or fourteen years; then suddenly, within a few months or even
weeks of one another, all the great color houses put out a whole
series of colors—chiefly browns, blues, yellows, and blacks—all
formed, like this old “Cachou de Laval,” by the action of sodium
sulphide or, which amounts to the same thing, of sulphur and caustic
alkali, upon organic material, and all capable of dyeing cotton and
linen, in one bath, colors extremely fast to washing and generally
quite fast to light, after they have been “set” by exposure to the
air.
While in general these are known and identified as the Sulphur
colors, the different manufacturers have given special class names to
their own series thus:
Immedial (_Cassella_), Katigene (_Elberfeld_),
Kyrogene (_Badische_), Pyrogene (_Klipstein_),
Thiogene (_Metz_), Thion (_Kalle_).
These colors are used almost exclusively for dyeing cotton and linen,
when shades fast to washing are required, without first putting them
through a mordanting process. The dyeing is done in one bath, with
little more difficulty than in the case of the Salt colors described
in the last chapter; and, while not faster to light than the best of
that class, they are not nearly so liable to bleed.
On wool they are rarely, if ever, used. Wool is almost always dyed
with the acid colors in an acid bath; and nowadays the range of these
colors is so great and the best of them are so very satisfactory,
that there is hardly ever a necessity for using colors of another
class.
Neither are these Sulphur colors often used on silk, although methods
have been devised for employing them in special cases. All the animal
fibres, however, and silk especially, are very easily “tendered,”
and indeed destroyed, by heating in an alkaline solution. And so
it is very easy to spoil a skein or piece of silk by dyeing it, in
the usual manner, with these dyes, dissolved as they must be in the
strongly alkaline sodium sulphide.
The presence in the bath of glucose (corn syrup, molasses, etc.), or
of glue or gelatine, helps greatly to protect these fibres from the
action of the chemicals. But even when dyed with great care, using
glucose, and dyeing the goods for but a short time in a bath strong
in color but weak in alkali, the results are not very satisfactory,
so far as shade and lustre are concerned. They have the advantage,
however, of being extremely fast to washing, more so, even, than the
Salt colors. In general, however, silk should be dyed with the Acid
colors for ordinary work, and with the Salt colors when fastness to
washing is required. The Sulphur colors should be reserved for cotton
and linen.
On mercerized cotton and artificial silk these dyestuffs take easily
and well, when dyed in cold or lukewarm baths. The lustre, however,
of the finished goods is apt to be less than when Salt colors or
Basic colors are used.
DYEING DIRECTIONS
For cotton and linen, measure out the color and dissolve it in hot
water to which has been added twice its amount of sodium sulphide
(crystals) and a quarter or third the amount of soda ash. (In all
these formulæ washing soda may be used in place of soda ash—only
in quantities almost twice as large.) It is advisable, though
not absolutely necessary, to add also to the dye-bath one or two
tablespoonfuls of Turkey red oil—a kind of liquid soap made by
treating castor oil first with sulphuric acid and then with soda.
This prevents the formation of a dark scum on the surface of the
dye-liquor, which is likely to cause streaks in the finished goods,
hard to wash out.
Into the dye-liquor immerse the well-wetted goods, and heat them,
turning them constantly, and keeping them as far as possible away
from the air and under the level of the liquid. Just before the
boiling point is reached take out the goods, and add salt in the
proportion of, say, two spoonfuls of salt for every teaspoonful of
dyestuff used. Stir till the salt is all dissolved, put the goods
back, and continue to turn them as before, keeping the goods down
under the liquor and not allowing it to boil.
After dyeing just below the boiling point for fifteen minutes,
remove the heat, take out the goods, and—as quickly as possible—run
them carefully backward and forward through the wringer (changing
the folds of the goods each time) until the excess of dye liquor is
entirely squeezed out. Then shake them out, hang them up for fifteen
or twenty minutes in the air to oxidize and “set,” and after this
wash them thoroughly in a bath of boiling soapsuds until all the
loose color has been removed. Finally, rinse them free from soap, and
hang up to dry.
When light shades are desired, or when the goods are tender, the
dyeing can be done at lukewarm temperature, and without the addition
of salt, with no detriment to the fastness of the color. In this
case, however, much of the dyestuff will be wasted in the unexhausted
dye-liquor.
_List of Selected Dyestuffs._—
Badische— Kyrogene Brown, R R O
Kyrogene Yellow, G G, extra
Kyrogene Direct Blue, 3 B, extra
Kyrogene Black, T G O
Cassella— Immedial Bordeaux, G
Immedial Yellow Olive, 5 G
Immedial Direct Blue, B
Elberfeld—Katigen Yellow, G F, extra
Katigen Indigo, C L G, extra
Katigen Deep Black, B
Kalle— Thio Indigo Red, B
Thion Yellow, 3 G, extra
Thion Blue, B, conc.
Thion Black, G, conc.
Metz— Thiogene Brown, G R
Thiogene Gold Yellow, A
Thiogene Green, G
Thiogene Cyanine, G
Thiogene Black, M A, extra strong
These Sulphur colors are particularly strong in various shades of
black, blue, and brown. Some of the yellow shades, also, are very
fast and good. The class is deficient, however, in reds—the only one
so far discovered being Thio Indigo Red B (_Kalle_), which really
belongs to the Indigo or Vat colors, described in the next chapter,
and which does not give very powerful shades when used as a Sulphur
color. As a rule, these dyes produce shades that are softer, deeper,
and much less brilliant than those of the Direct Cotton or Salt
colors. Being usually mixed, and not simple primary, colors, they are
not very easy to dye to shade, especially as the color of the freshly
dyed goods changes considerably while it is being oxidized. On the
other hand, they give, without mixing, extremely pleasant tones, and
are all very fast to washing and, at any rate as regards the selected
colors, are fast to light.
When exposed to strong direct sunlight some even of the best of them
are liable to change their shade somewhat; but even then they will
be found to fade to nice, soft shades not out of harmony with the
original. When very great fastness to light is necessary, it may
be worth while to after-treat them as described in Chapter III, by
keeping the dyed goods for twenty or thirty minutes in a hot bath
(not boiling) containing small amounts of copper sulphate, bichromate
of potash, and acetic acid.
CHAPTER VI
THE INDIGO OR VAT COLORS
=History.=—Most of the colors of this group have been discovered
and put on the market within the last two years. Thus they form the
most recent as well as, in many respects, the most interesting and,
perhaps, the most important class of modern dyestuffs. On the other
hand, to this same group belong not only indigo itself, which has
been known and valued in the East from the earliest ages, but also
that most famous of all the ancient dyestuffs, Tyrian Purple.
Indigo itself does not exist as such in nature; but it is
easily formed by oxidation, or the exposure to air, of a
substance—Indican—which occurs as such, or can be produced by
a simple process of fermentation, in the juices of many widely
distributed plants. Accordingly, even quite barbarous races in
different parts of the world noticed the deep permanent blue stains
formed on their bodies and clothing when they crushed, accidentally
or on purpose, the leaves and stems of the various _Indigoferæ_.
Gradually they learned to extract the color in a solid and permanent
form so that they could dye with it, instead of using the juice of
the fresh plant itself—and then they took to cultivating the plants.
These plants—_Indigofera Anil_, _I. tinctoria_, and others originally
found wild have been, up to the last four or five years, extensively
cultivated in many tropical countries, notably in India (some of
the best qualities came from the province of Bengal, and hence the
common name for the natural dyestuff—Bengal Indigo), Japan, China,
Java, South and Central America, and Africa. From these plants the
indigo of commerce, in the form of dark blue granular lumps with a
characteristic coppery lustre, was prepared by a comparatively simple
process of fermentation, extraction, and oxidation.
Indigo may also be obtained, although in small quantities only, and
in an impure condition, from other plants. Notably among these is
_Isatis tinctoria_, or woad, which in early days was extensively
cultivated in England and the Continent, and which, even now, is used
in small quantities in some processes of indigo dyeing.
_Artificial Indigo._—The exact composition of indigo was first
determined some sixty years ago, and from that time on some of the
greatest chemists of the world have been attempting to prepare it,
artificially, from some comparatively inexpensive source, obtained
from coal tar or elsewhere. As early as 1875 the problem was solved,
at least from a scientific standpoint, but the process proved too
expensive for commercial purposes. During the last five years,
however, at least two of the great German firms have discovered
methods for making, in any desired quantities and at very reasonable
expense, absolutely pure indigo from some of the important coal-tar
derivatives. And since that time the cultivation of the indigo
plant has proved so unprofitable that it has been almost entirely
abandoned, and the land formerly used for this crop is being turned
over to other and, at present, more useful purposes.
This synthesis—i.e., chemical formation—of indigo from coal-tar
products has been justly regarded as one of the great triumphs of
modern science. Right here let me impress upon my readers this fact:
the real dyestuff, indigo, is absolutely the same material, whether
it comes mixed with a great mass of impurities, as in the woad; or
whether it contains from 5 to 25 per cent. of foreign matter of
little or no value, as in the Bengal or natural indigo; or whether we
get it from Metz or the Badische Company, chemically pure, either in
the dry state or, thinned with water, in the form of a 20 per cent.
paste. It is positively the same dye; and being absolutely without
contamination of any kind, the artificial or synthetic dyestuff
presents advantages in the matter of purity of shade, ease and surety
of manipulation, and permanence of the color produced, which could
never be obtained before its introduction.
=Application of Indigo.=—The principles of indigo dyeing are the same
now as with the Egyptians, the only difference being in the means
used to bring about the chemical changes involved. Indigo itself is a
blue solid, insoluble in water, acids, and alkalies, and practically
unaffected by sunlight. If, however, the element hydrogen be added to
it, or, as the chemist would say, if it is “reduced” by the action
of any one of numerous deoxidizing or reducing agents, the indigo
blue is changed to a new substance, indigo white, which is almost
colorless, and which dissolves, in the presence of alkalies, to a
bright yellow liquid. If cotton, wool, paper, wood, or indeed almost
any solid materials (noticeably the fingers and nails, as some of my
readers may find out), are immersed in the solution, they will absorb
some of this indigo white, and then, on exposure to the air, the
white indigo will rapidly take up oxygen, and become converted into
the insoluble blue coloring matter.
_Fermentation Method._—Until recently the methods used for reducing
the indigo—i.e., changing the solid blue into the soluble white—were
just about the same as those used by the ancients, and were based
upon some kind of fermentation, usually alcoholic. It was found
out at a very early date that if indigo, ground up with water to a
paste and rendered alkaline by the addition of wood ashes, lime, or
other simple alkali, were mixed with grape juice or any other sugary
liquid, and then kept warm and allowed to ferment, the resulting
fluid would contain the dyestuff dissolved in a form suitable for
dyeing. The vessel in which this process was conducted was known as a
vat, and the process of indigo dyeing is still called “Vat Dyeing.”
_Disadvantages._—At the very best this method is slow, uncertain,
and difficult to manage, especially on a small scale. In wool
dyeing, to this day, a few vats are still to be found where syrup,
ground madder root or, in some instances, woad, wheat bran, and
other materials which ferment readily in the presence of alkali, are
stirred up with warm water and soda, and then allowed to stand. In
two or three days they are in active fermentation, and the indigo, in
the form of paste, is added and well stirred in. After much further
delay, if all goes well, the indigo is finally “reduced,” and, if
the amount of alkali, the temperature, the concentration of the vat,
and various other factors are carefully attended to, the bath can be
used for several days, or even weeks, without being made over again;
fresh indigo and other ingredients being added, from time to time,
as needed. Cotton, linen, wool, and even silk can be dipped in this
bath, which should be light greenish yellow in color, with a blue or
bluish-green scum or coating, where the indigo is oxidized on the
surface. Goods immersed in this bath turn yellow, and then, when
taken out, wrung free from loose liquor, and exposed to the air, the
yellow color quickly changes to a permanent blue.
A serious drawback to all these various fermentation vats is that
a good deal of the dyestuff is always spoilt—i.e., decomposed into
colorless compounds which can never be regenerated or made useful.
Indeed, the loss from this cause frequently amounts to 20% or 25% of
all the dye used, and occasionally, especially in hot weather, and on
a small scale, to far more.
But, apart from the actual loss in valuable dyestuff, there is a much
more serious drawback to this method of indigo dyeing, namely, the
waste of time and energy involved. There is always a considerable
delay in getting a fermentation vat fairly started, even where all
the conditions are favorable; and when it is running smoothly,
the reducing process is a very slow one. Furthermore, the indigo,
not being dissolved in the liquid but only suspended in it, has
a constant tendency to sink to the bottom in the form of a blue
mud, and thus escape the chemical action of the fermentation gases
entirely.
A short time ago a teacher of handicraft dyeing was expatiating, in
my presence, upon the impropriety of using any of the new chemical
processes for dyeing, and insisted that the only way to dye indigo
was to set up a vat, and feed it, and work with it as our ancestors
used to. It was suggested to her that it would be at least two or
three days before cloth could be dyed in such a vat. “Eight or ten
days at the earliest,” was the reply. And when it was hinted that
the vat would have to be frequently stirred during all that time,
she proudly answered, “Stirred regularly and thoroughly every single
half-hour, night and day, during the whole period.”
“H—m,” remarked a bystander, “that’s a little worse than sitting up
with a baby sick of the croup.”
Somehow the great advantage of this particular process over the
modern ones, by which a proper bath can be prepared in perhaps five
minutes, failed to impress itself on some of her listeners.
_Modern Chemical Vats._—As soon as it was understood just what
chemical action was going on in the vats, and the object of it,
chemists began to find out methods for reducing the indigo without
the necessity of a long, tedious, and even nasty fermentation
process. They first introduced the “copperas-lime” vat, where the
reduction was done by the use of ferrous sulphate (green vitriol or
copperas), and slaked lime was the alkali used to keep the indigo
white dissolved.
Later they introduced zinc dust, a very powerful reducing agent,
in place of the copperas, avoiding in this way the large amount of
precipitated iron oxide which always forms in the copperas vat,
and leads to the loss of dye, and muddiness and dulness of color,
necessitating a special clearing bath of dilute mineral acid.
At present the most satisfactory method is to use the chemical known
as _sodium hydrosulphite_, as a reducing agent, in a bath made
strongly alkaline with caustic soda. Hydrosulphite is not expensive;
it acts very rapidly, leaving no sediment; it causes no loss or
waste of the indigo; and it does its work perfectly. Hence, with its
introduction, the dyeing of indigo has become extremely simple.
To still further shorten and simplify the process, the large
manufacturers not only furnish indigo already ground up to a fine
paste with water, but also supply it already reduced by hydrosulphite
or some other reducing agent, so that it is almost ready to dye with
as it is, and will dissolve almost instantaneously in an alkaline
bath with the addition of just a little more reducing agent. Such
products are the Indigo Vat III (_Metz_), and the Indigo Solution 20%
(_Badische_). By using either of these, the preparation of a vat
large enough to dye 3 or 3½ pounds of cotton is the task of but a
few moments. These special preparations, however, are more expensive
than the regular 20% pastes, and the hydrosulphite vat is so easy to
prepare that the saving of time is hardly worth the extra cost.
DYEING DIRECTIONS
For dyeing by the Vat method the dye-pot is two-thirds filled with
warm water, at about 120° F. (when the finger can hardly bear the
heat), and one or two tablespoonfuls of caustic soda are added—enough
to make the bath decidedly alkaline. The dyestuff, preferably first
mixed up with some hot water, to thin the paste, is stirred into the
liquid, and then to this is added sodium hydrosulphite, in powder, or
preferably dissolved in water, until the color of the bath changes
from blue, first to green, and then to greenish yellow, with a
bluish-green coppery scum. If the bath is bright yellow, too much
hydrosulphite has been used, and some more indigo should be added;
or, if this is not desirable for fear of getting too dark shades, the
bath should be exposed to the air and stirred frequently until the
color is right. If the bath, on scraping aside the scum, looks blue,
or even markedly green, it needs a little more hydrosulphite. If,
after reduction, the bath looks yellow but turbid, it probably needs
more alkali.
Into this bath the material is placed, and stirred around until
thoroughly saturated—the temperature being kept about 120° F. for
heavy goods, to assist penetration. Light goods can be dyed equally
well in a lukewarm, or even a cold bath. The goods are then taken
out, wrung lightly by hand, and are carefully passed two or three
times through the wringer, to get the color evenly distributed. They
are then shaken out and hung up in the air to oxidize. In fifteen or
twenty minutes, after the color has changed, they should be rinsed
well in two or three waters, to get rid of all traces of the caustic
alkali, and then boiled for several minutes in a soap bath, to wash
off the loose dyestuff and prevent rubbing. This after-treatment with
boiling soapsuds is of even more importance in the case of the other
Vat dyes than it is with indigo, for with most of them the oxidation
is not completed in the air—and so the color is developed as well as
brightened by the soap bath.
It is very important, when working with these Vat colors, to remember
that hot solutions of caustic alkali are very hard on the hands
and that, therefore, rubber gloves are extremely useful, if not
essential. Stains left on hands, clothes, and utensils, although
difficult to remove by washing, are almost instantly dissolved by
warm solutions of hydrosulphite with a little soda or other alkali in
them.
_Results._—Colors produced by synthetic indigo are clear and clean,
but not brilliant. If the slightly purplish shades of natural indigo
are desired, they can be obtained with special brands—Indigo R, or
Indigo RR, _Metz_—or by mixing small quantities of Algol Red B,
_Elberfeld_, or Thio Indigo Red B, _Kalle_, with the indigo before
reducing it. It is generally supposed that the characteristic shade,
the so-called “bloom” of natural indigo, was due to the presence of
small quantities of a reddish dyestuff, known as indigo red. As a
matter of fact, however, the method of dyeing has more to do with
this than the composition of the dyestuff.
For instance, if the indigo is very thoroughly reduced in the vat
before the goods are immersed, as is generally the case in the modern
hydrosulphite method, and the bath is made up with fresh reducing
agent for each dyeing, the resultant color will be a very clear,
rather greyish, shade of blue without any purple lustre. If, however,
the dyestuff is not very perfectly reduced, as was generally the case
with the old fermentation vats, and the bath, from standing in the
air, has a heavy scum on the top, and is greenish rather than clear
yellow in color below the surface, then the dyed fabrics will be apt
to show the marked purplish tone which is so characteristic of the
older indigo dyeings.
_Uses._—While of less importance than it used to be before the
discoveries of the last few years, the use of indigo for dyeing
cotton, especially for the craftsman, is not to be neglected. It
furnishes, easily and rapidly, in one bath, without either boiling,
mordanting, or after-treatment, exceedingly pleasant, soft shades
which are fast to both light and washing. For resist dyeing, such as
Tied and Dyed work, Resist Stencil work, and Batik, it will be found
particularly useful, because the fabric can be dyed in the cold.
Indigo possesses, however, certain disadvantages, especially for the
professional dyer, which it shares with the other Vat dyes described
below, and which prevent it, and the other Vat dyes, from being used
as widely as the Salt colors or even the Sulphur colors. In the first
place these dyes are all of them expensive. They cost more than most
others, pound for pound of the dry color, and full shades need much
larger proportions of them in the bath.
Then it is difficult to dye to shade with them, because the color,
as a rule, alters so much when exposed to the air. In practice, when
dyeing large quantities of goods to the same shade, it is customary
to divide the materials into several lots of the same weight; and
to make a strong “stock solution” of the dyestuff, properly reduced
with alkali and hydrosulphite. By making up a fresh vat for each
lot of goods, using exactly the same volume of water and of “stock
solution,” and working each lot for the same length of time and at
the same temperature, even results can be produced with much less
trouble than by dyeing to shade by the eye.
Another drawback is that indigo-dyed goods, especially of the heavy
full shades, are apt to “rub.” This can best be avoided by always
using a well-reduced bath; by washing with boiling soap after each
dip; and by building up the deep shades by successive dippings in
moderately weak vats, rather than by obtaining the shade, once for
all, by using a very strong, concentrated dye-liquor.
For many hundreds, and even thousands, of years, indigo has been
universally recognized as the most permanent and most valuable blue
dyestuff for cotton and indeed for woolen goods. For the latter
purpose it is now but little used, thanks to the introduction of the
exceedingly fast dyestuffs of the Acid and Mordant classes. But for
cotton it is still considerably used, for fast shades.
THE MODERN VAT COLORS
Up to a very recent date indigo was the only dyestuff, of any
importance at any rate, that was used in the manner just described,
and produced colors fast to light and to washing. During the past
three or four years, however, the attention of the dyeing chemists
has been directed to this question, and at least five of the great
dye houses have introduced dyestuffs covering a great range of colors
which, when dyed in the same way as indigo, not only rival but
distinctly surpass that color in permanence as well as beauty.
=Names.=—These dyestuffs, while known generally as the Vat colors,
have been given special class names by their manufacturers, as
follows: Algol (_Elberfeld_); Ciba (_Klipstein_); Helindone (_Metz_);
Indanthrene (_Badische_), and Thio Indigo (_Kalle_). The Cassella
Company are just introducing the first members of their series, to be
known as Hydrons.
=List of Selected Dyestuffs=:—
Badische— Indanthrene Claret, B, Extra
Indanthrene Yellow, G
Indanthrene Blue, G C D
*Indigo pure
Cassella— *Hydrone Blue, R
*Hydrone Blue, G
Elberfeld— Algol Red, 5 G
Algol Yellow, 3 G
Algol Blue, 3 G
Kalle— *Thio Indigo Red, B G
*Thio Indigo Scarlet, S
Thio Indigo Brown, G
*Indigo, K G
Klipstein— Ciba Red, G
Cibanone Yellow, R
Ciba Green, G
Ciba Blue, 2 B
Ciba Violet, R
Metz— Helindone Red, 3 B
Helindone Fast Scarlet, R
*Helindone Yellow, 3 G N
*Indigo M L B, 6 B
N.B.—The dyestuffs marked * will dye in a lukewarm or even cold bath.
=Properties and Uses.=—These Vat dyes are not all of equal value,
but as a class they are, distinctly, the fastest of any as yet
introduced; and the best of them may properly be considered as the
most permanent coloring agents of any sort or kind that have ever
yet appeared on the earth. They not only far surpass in this respect
the best of the vegetable dyestuffs, with the possible exception
of the very best qualities of Turkey red, but in resistance to
chemicals and outside agencies of various sorts, are much better
than the best mineral colors. This is so much the case that the
modern specifications for dyed cloth for Government purposes, as for
instance the khaki uniforms for soldiers in active service, which up
to a year or two ago were dyed with iron buff modified with oxide of
chromium, have been raised, in one country after another, until they
exclude every class of dyestuffs except these new Vat colors.
During the last year or two these dyes have been introduced, though
with some difficulty, into commerce, and it is possible to obtain
shirtings and other printed goods, dyed in permanent colors, so
permanent indeed that the cloth will wear completely out before the
color changes in the slightest. The extra cost of the dyestuffs, and
the comparative difficulty of dyeing to shade, furnish an excuse for
increasing the price of the goods. And the perhaps not unnatural
disinclination of the shopkeepers to push the sale of materials
which, in their opinion, are quite unnecessarily fast, has combined
with the cost to delay the general adoption of these remarkably
valuable coloring agents.
For craftsmen, however, where the price of the dyestuffs constitutes
such a small percentage of the cost of the finished article,
and where the absolute permanence of the color is of the utmost
importance, these colors are most useful. They are not to be used,
excepting under special circumstances, for animal fibres—wool,
silk, leather, feathers, etc.—for fear of injuring the materials by
the action of the caustic alkali. But on cotton and linen, both in
direct or resist dyeing, and for stencil work, there are no colors to
compare with them in fastness, not excepting even the very best of
the Sulphur colors.
DYEING DIRECTIONS
These dyes are all applied, just like indigo, in an alkaline
hydrosulphite vat. The colors are applied in paste form, usually 20%
strong, or at any rate equivalent in strength to a 20% paste of pure
indigo. Care must be taken to thoroughly mix and stir up this paste
with a glass rod, in the original package, each time it is used, so
as to keep its composition uniform.
The proper amount, to be determined only by experience, is first
thinned with a little hot water, and then stirred into the dye-pot,
two-thirds full of hot water, about 140° F. (This is well below a
boil, and yet hot enough to slightly scald the tips of the fingers.)
To this is added caustic soda, in the proportion of two to three
spoonfuls to each one of the color, the amount of soda being
proportionately greater for light shades than where large amounts of
color are used.
After this has been dissolved the dyestuff is reduced by adding
slowly, with constant stirring, spoonful after spoonful of the
powdered sodium hydrosulphite until the bath clears and generally the
color changes. In most cases, as with indigo, the completion of the
reducing change can be told by a marked alteration in the shade of
the bath.
Thus, in general, the blue dyes, like indigo, turn yellow or
orange when the proper amount of hydrosulphite is added. For the
other colors there is no general rule. Thus Indanthrene Yellow
(_Badische_), when reduced, is blue—while the Helindone Yellow
(_Metz_) is blood red. Helindone Scarlets (_Metz_), when reduced,
appear green, while the Thio Indigo Red and Scarlet have about the
same color, when reduced, that they have when oxidized.
The best way to tell whether the bath is in proper condition is to
dip a piece of white blotting paper into it, and notice, on taking
it out, whether the color is in specks or is dissolved. On standing
in the air for a few minutes the color should become oxidized, and
firmly fixed to the paper. As a rule these Vat colors should be
reduced warm, because, in many cases at least, the reduced color does
not dissolve in a bath of cold alkali. In most cases, however, after
having been reduced at a temperature of about 140° F, the bath may be
allowed to cool considerably, before it loses its dyeing value. This
enables these colors to be used for Batik, or other processes where
the temperature must be kept below 80° or 90° F. The dyestuffs which
can be thus used will be found marked with an asterisk in the list of
selected dyestuffs above.
The well-wetted materials are placed in the reduced dye-bath, and
stirred and worked for five or ten minutes, or longer, according to
the depth of shade experienced. For full shades, however, as in the
case of indigo, it is much better to build up the color by successive
dippings than to try to put it all on in one bath. For heavy goods
the addition of a little Turkey red oil, about half a tablespoonful
to the gallon, is an advantage, though not absolutely necessary. When
thoroughly impregnated with the dye-liquor, the goods are taken out,
wrung carefully, two or three times, to remove the waste liquor as
evenly as possible, and then shaken out and exposed to the air for
fifteen or twenty minutes. They are then boiled in a soap bath for
about twenty minutes, and then well rinsed, and dried. This hot soap
bath, as before mentioned, is of great importance in most of these
colors, not only for getting rid of loosely fixed dyestuff, but for
oxidizing and fixing the color itself.
For dark shades it is well, as in the case of the Sulphur colors, to
add salt—three or four tablespoonfuls per gallon of dye-liquor—to
the bath, taking care to have it well dissolved before the goods are
entered. This is always done when dyeing with Helindone Yellow 3GN,
_Metz_.
The shades of these new Vat colors are extremely bright and clear,
and, by combining these properly, any desired effects may be
produced. The splendid series of reds and scarlets for the first
time allow the characteristic shades of Turkey red to be obtained,
in one bath, and of at least equal, if not of superior fastness
to the original. One peculiarity of these colors is their extreme
fastness, not only to light and washing, acids and alkalies, but also
to various oxidizing agents, such as chloride of lime or bleaching
powder. Accordingly goods properly dyed and finished with these
dyestuffs can be entrusted with safety, so far as the color goes, to
agencies which would speedily ruin fabrics dyed in any other manner.
CHAPTER VII
THE BASIC COLORS
In an earlier chapter it was mentioned that the modern dyestuffs
originated with the discovery by Perkin, in 1856, of the violet
coloring matter known as Mauveine. This dye was made by the oxidation
of the then rare chemical, aniline. Following this discovery, other
chemists, especially in France and Germany, soon obtained from the
same chemical or from substances very closely resembling it, a
considerable quantity of powerful and brilliant dyestuffs of the same
general character.
The original Mauveine was before long superseded, first by Hofmann’s
Violet, and then by a very important series of violet and purple
dyes known as Methyl Violet, with shades ranging from 6 or 7B for
the deep, full purples, to the 6 or 7R for the very red shades.
These violet colors have never been surpassed, or even equalled by
any other dyes for brilliancy and richness, although, in common
with almost all the other dyes of this class, they are not fast to
sunlight.
Another extremely powerful and brilliant color of this class, used
considerably to this day although discovered nearly fifty years
ago, is the dye often called, from its origin, Aniline Red. It was,
however, named by the German manufacturers, Fuchsine, from its
rich, full, crimson shades, resembling the deep tints of the flower,
fuchsia, while the French, who discovered and manufactured it soon
after the close of Louis Napoleon’s Italian campaign, called it
Magenta, after the famous victory of that name.
About this time some German chemists discovered and introduced a
full, rich, brown dye, still largely used for dyeing leather (kid
gloves and the like), and, naturally enough, gave it the name of
Bismarck Brown. And at approximately the same date was discovered the
very valuable blue dyestuff, perhaps the best of the whole class,
with quite a range of full, deep shades, and with considerable
fastness to light, called Methylene Blue.
=General Properties.=—The early colors of this group are the
dyestuffs properly known as the “Aniline Colors” because of their
origin; although this name has been applied, loosely, to all of
the thousands of artificial dyestuffs without regard to their
source of composition. To the chemist, their chemical structure
and their behavior toward reagents, such as acids and alkalies,
naturally suggested the name “Basic Colors.” This means that they are
substances with strong affinity for all sorts of acids, with which
they form more or less stable salts, while they can be liberated from
these salts by the action of stronger bases, such as ammonia, or the
fixed alkalies, soda and potash.
=Application.=—These facts were discovered by Perkin while trying to
introduce his Mauveine into the dyeing industry, and he discovered
the methods, used to this day, for applying these dyes to the
different textile materials. He found that the dyes of this class
have a strong affinity for the different animal fibres, such as
wool, silk, leather, etc., all of which seem to possess some acid
properties of their own; but pure vegetable materials, like cotton,
linen, and paper, from which all impurities such as vegetable acids,
gums, etc., have been removed, have no affinity at all for even the
most powerful of the Basic dyes. A cotton handkerchief, boiled for
hours in a strong solution of Methyl Violet, can be washed in a few
minutes clear of every particle of color, while a piece of silk or
wool, soaked for an instant in the same dye-bath, will be permanently
stained, deep and full.
_Cotton, Linen, etc._—In order to fasten these dyes to vegetable
fibre it is necessary to give the latter a distinctly acid character,
and this was done by Perkin in a manner still used. He steeped the
material for several hours in a hot bath of the acid vegetable
compound, tannic acid or tannin, found so largely in hemlock and
chestnut bark, sumac leaves, nut-galls, and the like; and then
loosely fixed the tannin, thus absorbed, by a weak bath of tartar
emetic. Cotton or linen fabrics, thus “mordanted,” will combine with
the Basic dyes as readily and as firmly as any animal fibre, and the
resulting colors, while not, as a rule, fast to light, are extremely
fast to washing.
Since the introduction of the direct cotton dyes, both Salt colors
and Sulphur colors, this method of dyeing, for skeins or piece goods,
has been largely discontinued; but, by using a modification of this
process, enormous quantities of Basic colors are still employed,
on cotton and linen, in the manufacture of calicoes, organdies, and
other printed fabrics.
Curiously enough the Salt and the Sulphur colors, in almost every
instance, possess sufficient acid properties of their own to act
as very fair mordants for the Basic colors. Accordingly, it is not
uncommon for dyers to “top,” with Basic colors, cotton or linen goods
dyed directly. In the case of the Salt colors, this increases their
fastness to washing, and with Sulphur colors it makes the shades more
brilliant.
Most vegetable materials that are used in a more or less natural
condition, like straw, raffia, grass, wood-shavings, jute, and the
like, contain enough of this natural tannic acid to act as a mordant
for the Basic colors, which may in this direction be used as direct
dyes.
_Wool, Silk, etc._—For animal fibres, such as wool, silk, furs,
feathers, etc., the Basic colors have been almost entirely
superseded, in commerce, by the class of dyestuffs known as the Acid
colors. These occur in much greater abundance and variety, and can
be applied with less danger of spoiling the goods by uneven results.
For leather, on the other hand, the Basic colors are still largely
used, especially for dark shades, or when fastness to light is not
particularly desired. On bark-tanned leather, which is full of tannic
acid, they take hold particularly well, and are often more convenient
to work with than the Acid colors, although they do not, as a rule,
give such even results.
=Uses.=—On a small scale it is hardly worth while for the amateur to
try to use these Basic colors for dyeing either cotton or linen. The
difficulty of correctly and evenly mordanting the goods is quite as
great as that of applying the dyes afterward. And the Sulphur colors
and Vat colors will be found quite as fast to washing as the best
mordanted Basic colors, with the additional advantage of being very
much faster to light, as well as easier of application.
By using some of the methods of the calico printer, it is possible to
employ these dyes, with some success, for stencilling. But even for
this purpose, excepting, perhaps, on silk, the modern Vat colors are
more convenient, as well as being infinitely more permanent to light.
_Disadvantages._—The chief drawback to the use of these dyes is
that they are not fast to light. Several of them—Methylene Blue,
for instance, and Methylene Heliotrope O (_Metz_)—are fairly fast,
but the rest, especially in light shades, and on transparent or
translucent fabrics, are liable, when exposed to sunlight for any
length of time, to alter their shade to a very marked degree.
For dark shades this is not so noticeable, for, when goods are
strongly colored, the effect of the sunlight on at least the deeper
portions of the fibre is largely counteracted by the color of
the goods themselves. So, too, an opaque material, like leather,
will hold the same shade of color distinctly longer than silk or,
especially, artificial silk, where the sunlight strikes through and
through the fibre, without any protection at all. But, generally
speaking, these dyes will not stand strong sunlight.
Nor are the shades of these Basic dyes, as a rule, as attractive as
those of other classes. The strong and brilliant, not to say coarse,
shades of Methyl Violet, Malachite Green, Aniline Red, and the rest,
which created such a sensation when they first appeared in the early
sixties, were the particular colors which provoked John Ruskin to
vehement, if not unparliamentary remarks. When unmixed they certainly
do harrow the feelings of those artistically inclined, as much now as
then. They are rarely seen now, for the taste of the public has been
sufficiently educated to make a demand for softer shades. As before
explained, nothing is easier than to soften these fierce, harsh
colors to most beautiful and harmonious tints by mixing into them a
mere trace of their complementaries.
_Advantages._—In spite of all that can be said against them, these
cheap, brilliant, and very powerful dyes are not to be despised, and
should still be found in the outfit of a well-equipped dyer. For
straw, raffia, chips, willow, and other materials used so largely
for hats and for basket-work, these dyes are distinctly valuable,
and, if supplemented by fast Acid colors for light shades, or for
particularly fast effects, will be found satisfactory enough. So,
too, for leather they will be found extremely useful, excepting where
delicate shades, fast to light, are required.
Some kinds of artificial silk, also, especially those made from
nitro-cellulose and hence possessed of acid properties, dye far
better with these than with any other dyes, although, as explained
above, the colors will be far from permanent.
For the craftsman, the fastness to washing of these dyes is a
matter of very little importance, because they are used by him so
exclusively upon materials such as basketry, leather, and artificial
silk, which are never exposed to rough handling in boiling soap and
water.
As regards their fastness to light, the greater number of these
must be classed as belonging to the fourth class, i.e., distinctly
fugitive in character. On the other hand, some special ones can be
selected from the group which are not only distinctly faster than the
rest, but are fast enough to be well up in the third class, or can at
a stretch, be placed in the second class, i.e., can be considered as
satisfactory, at any rate, against any but very severe exposure.
=The Fastest Basic Colors.=—Among these may be placed the well-known
dyestuff, Methylene Blue, perhaps the most satisfactory of the whole
class. A very good color also is Methylene Heliotrope O (_Metz_),
which, while less brilliant, is far faster than the many brands of
Methyl Violet, Hofmann’s Violet, and the rest, which to most dyers
are the characteristic basic violets.
For blacks, many composite dyes are on the market, made by the
different color houses, known as Leather Blacks. These are fast
enough, for deep shades, but not to be trusted when thinned down to
form greys. The fastest individual basic black is Diazine Black,
(_Kalle_), and this should be used for the lighter shades.
The Red and Yellow colors are distinctly less satisfactory. None of
them can really be considered better much than third class. Of the
Reds the best is probably the color known as Safranine, different
brands of which, giving as a rule the yellow shades, are manufactured
by the various color houses; one brand being about as fast as
another. For the bluish shades of red, probably the fastest is
Diazine Red, (_Kalle_).
As regards Yellow, the list is even more unsatisfactory.
There is a very beautiful golden yellow, known as Auramine O,
manufactured by most of the color houses, which, however, is hardly
fast enough to be in the third class. This dyestuff, by the way, is
injured by boiling, and therefore should never be used in a dye-bath
heated to over 130° or 140° Fahrenheit. Less pleasing in shade,
but somewhat faster to sunlight, are the rather orange or brownish
yellows known as New Phosphine G (_Cassella_), and Methylene Yellow
(_Metz_). Somewhat brighter colors, though less fast to light, are
produced by Thio flavine T. None of these, however, compares in
fastness to the selected colors of any other class in this book.
The various brands of the common dyestuff, Bismarck Brown, are
largely used for leather, and while probably inferior in fastness
to any of the colors mentioned above, are not found in commercial
practice too fugitive to be pretty satisfactory. When, however,
materials are liable to be exposed for any length of time, two or
three weeks in succession, to direct powerful sunlight, it will
generally be advisable to use mixed browns made from fast Acid colors.
Upon the whole, although we are still frequently called upon to
employ them, they must, from the craftsman’s standpoint, always be
considered as untrustworthy. They should, therefore, never be used
where dyestuffs of any other class can be made to take their place.
DYEING DIRECTIONS
The application of Basic colors to leather dyeing will be discussed
later. We shall now discuss their application to basketry materials,
such as straw, raffia, willow, and the like, where they will be found
useful.
It will at once be noticed that these dyestuffs are far more powerful
than any thus far met with in these lessons. Indeed, while there
will be needed, for full shades of the Vat colors, pastes from about
15% to 20% of the total weight of the dry materials, of the Sulphur
colors from 7% to 10%, of the Salt colors from 4% to 6%, and of the
Acid colors from 1½% to about 3%, most of these Basic colors will
give very full shades with from ½% to 1% of the total weight of dry
material.
These Basic colors do not dissolve readily in water, but are easily
soluble in alcohol, and also in even very dilute acids. Acids form
salts with the dyestuffs and these salts dissolve when the free
coloring matters do not. Accordingly the Basic colors should always
be dissolved carefully in a separate cup or vessel, using hot water,
and adding, for each spoonful of dyestuff, two or three spoonfuls of
acetic acid or, if more convenient, of strong vinegar.
The color, thus dissolved, should be added to warm water in the
dye-pot, preferably through a fine strainer or piece of cheesecloth,
to avoid any undissolved particles which would cause spots. The
well-wetted goods are immersed in this dye-bath, and turned, either
in the cold or with gentle heat, until the desired shade is reached,
or the bath is exhausted. The material is then taken out, rinsed once
or twice in water, cold or warm, carefully dried, and, if necessary,
straightened and pressed or ironed out.
_Straw._—Care must be taken when dyeing these materials to have them
quite free from grease and dirt, before dyeing them. If they do
not wet readily and evenly, after being soaked in warm water for a
couple of hours, they should be carefully washed in warm soapsuds,
and thoroughly rinsed. The soap, however, should be of good quality
and, especially with straw, either in the form of straw braid or made
up into hats, no soda or other free alkali should be allowed in the
bath, for fear of injuring the surface and destroying the gloss. This
last is sometimes improved by dipping the straw, after dyeing and
rinsing, into a weak bath of Castile (olive oil) soap, or of Turkey
red oil (about one tablespoonful to the gallon), before it is dried.
In dyeing straw, the greatest pains must be taken to dye it evenly.
Braid should be tied up in loose hanks or bundles, so that the
dyestuff can penetrate readily into every part; and with a loop
of tape or string, by which it can be raised or lowered in the
dye-bath. It should be kept in motion sufficiently to cause uniform
circulation of the liquid. The dye-bath should not be too strong,
especially at the beginning, and should be heated slowly to the
boiling point, where it should be kept for half an hour or so, to
insure penetration. It is best to add the dyestuff in small portions,
from time to time, as the bath becomes exhausted, lifting the goods
out of the bath each time, and stirring in the new color before
putting the goods back again. If the goods once become uneven it is
very hard, if not impossible, to get them level again, or to strip
them fully, without spoiling the materials. The best thing to do, if
this misfortune overtakes them, is to dye them some dark color, where
minor irregularities will be covered up and pass unnoticed. In other
words, “Dump it in the black,” as the dyers say.
Ladies’ straw hats are dyed in just the same way as the loose braid,
the same care being taken to clean and wet the goods thoroughly, and
to dye evenly. It is often of interest to experiment with old hats
of good material, but faded, and to dye them up some pleasant new
shade, and the ribbons and trimmings to match. Sometimes the remains
of the old coloring will strip well by washing in hot soapsuds, and
sometimes by soaking in warm water containing about one tablespoonful
to the gallon of _sodium hydrosulphite_—the same salt that was used
as a reducing agent for the Vat colors in the last chapter.
If the color comes out well, it is then easy enough, after thoroughly
rinsing, to dye them any desired shade. Otherwise they can be dyed
Navy Blue, with a good shade of Methylene Blue and a trace of red,
or Seal Brown, using a large amount of red and a little yellow and
blue; or they can be dyed black with a black dye, such as one of the
so-called Leather Blacks, usually made by mixing a deep purple with a
yellow, or one of the strong, powerful Basic greens with red.
In general, a well dyed piece of braid is supposed to show smooth,
even coloring, good gloss, and good penetration of the dyestuff into
the folds of the straw. There are, however, decided possibilities
for the intelligent worker to obtain more interesting effects with
but little trouble. It is very easy to use the principles, already
explained, of rainbow dyeing, for straw braid, and beautiful effects
can be obtained in this way, though it would need an artistic as well
as an experienced milliner to fully utilize the same in making hats.
But it frequently happens, when dyeing coarse braid without boiling,
that the dye penetrates unevenly, from the edge towards the centre.
Very pretty shaded effects can be produced in this way, the general
color being uniform, and yet the straw, when looked at closely,
showing tints instead of one flat, uniform shade. By dyeing the straw
a solid color first, and then shading it in this manner with a
different color, very interesting effects can be produced.
It may be worth while to mention here that, when bought at wholesale
places, it is astonishing how cheap the raw materials are. Bodies
of straw, chip, etc., framing wire, white satin ribbon, artificial
flowers, wing feathers, etc., from which not only pretty but even
handsome and elegant head coverings can be created, and cost next to
nothing at wholesale. The mechanical part of dyeing all these things
can be learned in a very short time; after that the possibilities for
a skilled worker, who has a good eye for color and can dye to the
desired shades herself without having to hunt them far and near, are
very large.
_Raffia._—This is a material so widely used in the public schools,
as well as by craftsmen, for weaving baskets, that it is well worth
while to pay more attention to the dyeing of it. It is quite cheap,
and very bulky, and takes these colors extremely well. So that it is
one of the most satisfactory of all raw materials to experiment with,
especially if there is a school or workshop at hand, where the dyed
goods can be utilized.
The raffia should be shaken out thoroughly, and soaked in soft water
over night, or at least for several hours, to thoroughly wet and
soften it. If even shades are desired it can then be dyed, just like
straw braid, in a warm dye-bath containing the dyestuff, previously
dissolved in diluted acetic acid or vinegar.
It is much more interesting, however, to dye it rainbow shades
from the start. If red, blue, and yellow dyestuffs are dissolved
separately, in different cups or pitchers, these solutions can be
used to replenish the large dye-pots of the same colors. To keep the
colors reasonably clear, and prevent them from speedily degenerating
into “mud,” it is well to keep on hand one or two rinsing-pots,
full of warm water, or to have a sink near at hand, where each hank
or bundle of raffia should be rinsed after being taken out of one
dye-pot and before going into the next.
The raffia, when thoroughly wetted out, should, for convenience’
sake, be made up into separate loosely-tied bundles, with a loop
on each by which to handle it in the dye-bath without staining the
hands. It is well, too, to have some oil-cloth around, for these
bundles drip a good deal, and the dye-liquor will stain anything of
an animal or vegetable nature with which it comes in contact. After
a little experimenting with dipping these bundles first into the
first dye-pot and then—rinsing each time—into the other two, it will
be easy to get the general effect of any particular shade, although,
when examined closely, the fibre will show the presence of all three
colors.
It is interesting to notice, here, as previously with the Salt
colors, how easy it is to modify and soften the harsh shades of the
individual unmixed dyestuffs. And, as before, it is very interesting
as well as very useful to dye some bundles even shades of some
important compound color, such as brown, for instance, or olive
green, or steel grey, and to notice how the color is changed on the
fibre by adding a little more red, or yellow, or blue to the bath.
The “eye for color” obtained in this way is of the greatest possible
advantage to a dyer, whether amateur or professional; and where, as
in this case, the materials are cheap, easy to dye, and possible to
utilize, every advantage should be taken of the opportunity.
=Permanent Colors on Basketry.=—While for most purposes the straw,
raffia chips, willows, etc., dyed with Basic colors will be found
satisfactory enough, it is best for craftsmen who are making a
specialty of very high-grade baskets, to use some of the fast Acid
colors, described and listed in the next chapter, for their reds and
yellows, and for all mixed shades in which these two colors play an
important part. The Acid dyes are applied in a boiling bath, with the
addition of a little acetic acid, and, while not fast to washing,
and not imparting their colors as readily as the Basic dyes, can be
thoroughly depended upon, even in light and delicate shades, against
the action of sunlight. Salt dyes can also be used, in a boiling
bath with the addition of some salt, but, excepting in some special
cases, are not superior to the Acid dyes, although somewhat faster to
washing.
CHAPTER VIII
THE ACID COLORS
The discovery and introduction into commerce of Mauveine and the
other Basic dyes, focussed the attention of chemists, all over the
world, upon this new and important application of their science.
And it was soon noticed that certain organic bodies, of a decidedly
_acid_ character, had the power of dyeing wool and silk. These early
dyes were so-called “nitro” compounds, formed by the action of strong
nitric acid upon derivatives of coal tar, and in most cases they
gave strong and brilliant, but rather fugitive, shades of yellow.
The most interesting of these, perhaps, was the compound known as
“picric acid,” which at one time was considerably used for dyeing
silk yellow. Now it has been abandoned for that purpose but is
manufactured on an enormous scale for use as an explosive.
These original acid dyes were of little importance. But in the
early seventies chemists began to make use of a reaction—known as
“diazotizing”—for making new organic compounds by the coupling of
aniline or bodies similar to aniline, with all sorts and kinds of
other compounds derived from coal tar. The number of derivatives
of this sort proved enormous, and many of them had more or less
valuable dyeing properties. And in a very short time new dyestuffs
had been discovered, good, bad, and indifferent, numbering not
hundreds, but thousands.
A very few of these so-called “Azo” dyes were of the Basic class,
like Bismarck Brown, mentioned in the last chapter. Others,
discovered ten or fifteen years later, constituted the class of
Direct Cotton colors or Salt colors. But the great bulk of these
colors belonged to the so-called “Acid” class, forming salts with
bases and alkalies, and being liberated from the salts by strong
acids.
The number of Acid Azo colors is very large. In the catalogues of
commercial coal-tar colors there are some two hundred and fifty
of these dyes which have been picked out of the rest as having
sufficient value to be carefully described, and to have been placed
on the market by the great dye houses. Most of these are red and
orange colors, with a few yellows. As a rule they are brilliant and
clear, but, with a few exceptions, not particularly fast to light.
When these were introduced it was soon recognized that they were of
practically no value for cotton and linen. They are as a rule much
more soluble than the Basic dyes of the foregoing chapter, and hence
are occasionally used as stains for wood, rattan, and other vegetable
materials where considerable penetration is needed, without fastness
to washing. But such use is of little importance.
=Properties.=—Acid dyes are almost exclusively employed for dyeing
wool, silk, feathers, and other animal fibres, and for this they
are extremely valuable. The introduction of the Acid Azo colors
so simplified and improved the dyeing of wool and silk, that every
effort was made to increase the range of colors. And when it was
found that the Azo colors were weak on the line of blue, purple,
and green, efforts were made, which after several years proved
successful, to change the various powerful Basic dyes, the Methyl
Violets, Fuchsin or Aniline Red, Aniline Blue, Malachite Green, and
the rest, into Acid dyes, so that they could all be used in the same
dye-baths. This has resulted in a very wide range of colors indeed,
for the Acid Azo colors cover fully all the shades of yellow, orange,
and especially of red, from scarlets of all sorts and kinds to deep
full crimsons. And then the remaining shades are covered by the
acidified or sulphonated Basic colors.
These latter, by the way, though very brilliant and strong and rich,
are no faster to light than the original Basic colors from which
they are derived. Of late years the Acid colors have held their
own, and still monopolize the commercial, as well as the special,
dyeing of wool and silk excepting under unusual circumstances, when
considerable fastness to washing is required.
With these dyes, as in the case of the Basic dyes, the fastness to
washing is of little or no consequence to the craftsman. Nobody
expects to scrub hand-dyed leather; and woollen and silk goods,
unless specially prepared, are not supposed to be turned over to the
tender mercies of the family laundress. However, it may be well to
emphasize here the fact that these dyes are as a rule “stripped”
quite readily by boiling in a neutral soap bath. And when the
craftsman wishes to dye wool or silk fast to washing, he must either
use the Salt dyes, in a boiling bath, or must dye, with special
precautions against tendering, with either the Sulphur or the Vat
Dyes.
With regard to light-fastness, however, the case is different. A
great many hundreds, possibly even thousands, of Acid dyes have been
discovered, and scores of them, covering every shade, can be obtained
in the open market. Most of these are of but little permanence, but a
few products, from each of the great color houses, can be selected,
whose fastness to light is extremely satisfactory. The dyes in the
following list can hardly be considered as fast as the Vat dyes,
previously described, but are probably faster, as a class, than any
other class mentioned in this book. They would rank at the very top
of the second class, and some at least would fairly enter the first
class, being absolutely satisfactory against even the strongest
sunlight.
A series of skeins, dyed all colors of the rainbow, including many
delicate light shades, with a red, yellow, and blue dye of those
mentioned below, withstood an exposure test which quite ruined a
similar set of skeins dyed with the very best natural dyestuffs. And
a large hand-woven rug, made of wool dyed light shades with the same
dyes, was placed for two weeks on a roof in New York, half of it
being covered with boards and the rest exposed to the direct action
of the July sunlight, and at the end of this time it was impossible
to notice any difference in shade.
The colors in the following list are to be used, principally, for
wool. They will all dye silk, leather, and feathers, but in the
chapters dealing with those materials some additional dyes may be
mentioned, which are specially suited for them.
_List of Selected Dyes._—
Badische— Palatine Scarlet A, 3 R
Palatine Light Yellow, R
Tartrazine (yellow)
Wool Fast Blue, B L
Cassella— Brilliant Cochineal, R R
Acid Yellow, A T, conc.
Tetracyanol, S F
Elberfeld—Azo Crimson, S
Fast Red, A
Fast Yellow, 3 G
Alizarine Blue, S A P
Cashmere Black, 3 B N
Kalle— Biebrich Acid Red, 2 B
Wool Yellow, T A
Nero cyanine Blue, B
Nero cyanine Black, D
Metz— Fast Acid Red, M
Fast Acid Orange, G
Fast Acid Yellow, 3 G
Fast Acid Blue, B B
DYEING DIRECTIONS
The Acid dyes, like the Basic, are used in an acid bath, but for a
different reason. With the Basic dyes acetic acid or some other weak
acid is added, for the purpose of readily dissolving the color. In
the case of the Acid dyes, however, the dyestuffs are almost always
put on the market in the form of the potassium or ammonium salts of
the color acid. And the presence of some acid is always necessary,
to liberate the color acid, and allow it to combine with the basic
principles existing in the animal fibres.
_For Wool._—The goods, well washed and soaked, are warmed gently in a
bath containing, besides the dyestuff dissolved in plenty of water,
a little sulphuric acid and a good deal of Glauber’s salt. Both acid
and salt should be free from iron, or the shade will be dulled.
The amount of acid to be used may vary between considerable limits
without affecting the results. If too much is present, there is
danger of injuring the feel and the lustre of the fibre. If there
is not enough acid in the bath, the color will wash right out of
the wool, as soon as it is rinsed. In general it is well to start
with about one tablespoonful of dilute (30%) sulphuric acid for each
gallon of dye-liquor and about twice that amount of Glauber’s salt.
It is hard to tell just what is the function of the Glauber’s salt.
It seems, however, to open up the pores of the wool in some way, and
to make it dye more evenly and deeply. The bath is gently heated,
with constant stirring of the goods, until the right shade is
produced, or, if it is desired to exhaust the bath and so waste no
color, until near the boiling point.
The goods when taken out of the dye-bath must be washed very
thoroughly, to remove the last trace of acid, which otherwise on
drying would ruin the wool.
It must be remembered that these Acid dyes hardly affect cotton
in the least, and so the goods dyed in this way must be free from
vegetable fibres, if level dyeings are to be obtained.
In dyeing wool skeins commercially it is, of course, of the utmost
importance to have the colors perfectly level and uniform. This
uniformity is obtained easily enough, when using these Acid dyes, by
having the wool thoroughly wet before placing it in the dye-bath;
by having it well loosened out and well stirred so that the color
will penetrate evenly every part of the material; and, finally,
by starting the bath at a moderate temperature, and heating it
gradually, until the proper shade is obtained.
For handicraft dyeing the student is strongly advised to practise
shaded and irregular effects, the so-called Rainbow dyeing, with wool
in skeins, just as, in previous lessons, with raffia and with cotton.
By using coarse heavy yarns, very beautiful two and three color
effects can be produced, which, when used for embroidery or weaving,
will prove most interesting.
Great care must always be taken, in wool dyeing, to preserve the
lustre and the soft effect of the wool, and to avoid felting. This
can best be done by using moderate amounts of acid, by dyeing at
moderate temperature and never raising the dye-bath quite to the
boil; and finally, by handling the goods as little as possible in
the acid dye-bath, consistent of course with exposing every portion
equally to the action of the dyestuff. Cotton skeins can be worked
and rubbed, and pulled, and thrown up and down in the hot dye-bath,
without fear of injuring them. But wool should be handled carefully,
and worked in the dye-pot quietly and gently, just sufficiently
to accomplish two results. First, the wool at the bottom of the
pot should be raised by a lifting and turning motion and replaced
by fresh material; and second, when the wool is lowered back into
the liquor it should be loosened, so as to allow the dye-liquor to
penetrate the mass.
CHAPTER IX
DYEING FEATHERS
The use of feathers and, especially, of ostrich feathers for
millinery has, during the past few years, increased to enormous
proportions. Besides the home product, from California and the
Western States, which, however, is but small, the importation of
raw feathers from abroad has averaged, during the past two or three
years, nearly eight millions of dollars. As yet, the dyeing of
these feathers is almost entirely confined to professionals—their
processes, although simple, not being generally known or published.
As before mentioned, feathers, like other animal products, can be
colored with ease by either the Basic or the Acid dyestuffs. In
practice, as with wool and silk, the Acid dyes are universally used,
because of their greater variety, their greater fastness to light,
and their better levelling properties. To use the Acid colors with
success the following points must be carefully considered. First, the
baths must be such as not to ruin or “burn” the feathers, i.e., they
must leave intact the tiny barbules upon the barbs or “flues,” as the
dyers call them, which make the feather look soft and full and not
stringy.
Second, the quill must be fully dyed, and the shaft, or stem of the
feather, must also be colored just as well as the flues. This is a
very common defect in feather dyeing. The quill, being hard and stiff
and horny, is much more difficult to penetrate with the dyestuff
than the soft, delicate fibres. If the feather, therefore, is dyed
hurriedly or carelessly, the latter may be colored dark and full,
long before the quill or the lower part of the stem has been dyed at
all. This necessitates painting the stem after the finishing process,
with oil colors, to match the rest of the feather.
Finally, after dyeing, the feather must be properly finished so that
the flues will not look woolly on the one hand, nor stringy on the
other hand, but soft and full.
The whole secret of feather dyeing lies in the proper attainment of
these three requirements, success in which depends respectively upon
(a) the composition of the dye-bath, (b) the method of dyeing, and
(c) the finishing process.
=(a) The Dye-bath.=—As is universally the case when using Acid
dyes on animal fibres, the bath must be distinctly acid, in order
to release the free color acid from the dyestuff, which, in its
commercial form, is a salt. A very little experimenting with ostrich
feathers will show that the presence, not only of mineral acids
like sulphuric or hydrochloric, but even of the much milder organic
acids, like acetic or citric, is liable to “burn” the feather badly
and convert a well barbuled flue into a bare fibre which, under no
conditions, can look other than stringy. The acid commonly used
by the professionals is oxalic acid, but, of late years, dyeing
chemists have been introducing into the dyeing industry the use of
the volatile and pungent formic acid, and in the dyeing of ostrich
feathers this acid has been found particularly advantageous.
Excepting when a large number of feathers, strung together on a line,
are to be dyed the same color, it is customary to dye feathers in an
agateware pan or flat dish, and about two-thirds of a teaspoonful
of formic or oxalic acid in a pint of water, is about the right
proportion for one or two feathers at a time.
=(b) Method of Dyeing.=—
_Softening the Feathers._—Before immersing the feathers in the
dye-bath the greatest pains should be taken, first, to thoroughly
cleanse them, and, second, to thoroughly soften them. As a rule,
the feathers are bleached before dyeing and in this process they
generally lose all of their original grease. But if they show signs
of wetting unevenly when plunged into hot water, they should be
carefully scrubbed with Castile soap and hot water, and well rinsed
till the last trace of soap has been removed.
The clean feathers should then be thoroughly softened by immersing
them in hot water. This is especially important as regards the quills
and the stems, which may have to soak for half an hour or more before
they are soft enough to take the dyestuff.
_Dyeing the Feathers._—After softening, each feather is held by the
tip, and laid, butt first, in the dye-bath. For light shades the
dye-liquor may remain cold, but for darker shades it is best to
enter the feathers at a low temperature, and raise the latter very
gently till the right shade is reached, or the bath is decidedly hot,
although still far below the boiling point.
Above all, care must be taken to dye the quill and butt first, and
to keep them in the bath very much longer than the flues and tip.
The latter will dye in a minute or two, but to thoroughly stain the
former may take twenty minutes or half an hour.
=(c) Finishing.=—When the desired shade has been reached, the feather
is taken from the bath and rinsed thoroughly in warm water, to get
rid of the loose color. Then it must be “starched.” This is the
technical name for the drying process, and is very different from the
laundryman’s idea of “starching,” although the two processes have
occasionally been confused, with most disastrous results, as far as
the feathers were concerned.
_Dry-starching._—After the dyed feathers have been thoroughly rinsed,
they should be partially dried, by wiping with a soft piece of cloth,
like a handkerchief or piece of cheesecloth, and then laid flat on
a piece of stiff paper and covered with a heaping tablespoonful or
so of dry, finely powdered starch (on a small scale the quality
known as “Electric Starch” is eminently satisfactory). The starch is
thoroughly rubbed into the feather with the fingers, and then the
feather, full of starch, is beaten and dusted against the edge of the
table or the back of the hand until the starch has all been shaken
out. After one or two repetitions of this process, the feather will
be found not only dry but with the barbules properly filled out.
Sometimes the feather, thus treated, has a woolly look, the starching
process having gone too far. In this case it should be dampened in
cold water, and restarched.
Under no circumstances should any starch paste be allowed to touch or
form on the flues. The starching must be done in the cold and with
the unbroken starch grains.
_Wet-starching._—Some dyers prefer wet-starching to the dry process
just described. In this process, the feathers, after dyeing and
rinsing, are worked for a minute or two in a thick milk (not paste)
made by stirring one or two large tablespoonfuls of dry starch in
half a pint or so of cold water, till all the lumps have been broken
up. After this milk has been thoroughly rubbed into every part of
the feather, the latter is taken out, dried roughly by wiping with
cheesecloth, and then by wrapping between blotting paper or folded
cheesecloth and running carefully through a not too tight wringer.
The feather is then taken out and thoroughly dried, either by laying
it on the table in the sunlight or in a warm room for some time, or,
if very great care is taken, by holding and moving it over a hot-air
register, or high over the stove or gas flame. Of course, if this is
done carelessly and too great heat is applied, some of the starch
grains will be converted into paste, and the feather probably ruined.
When thoroughly dry, “bone dry,” as the dyers call it, the feather is
beaten against the back of the hand, or edge of the table until all
the starch is shaken out.
=Dyeing in the Starch.=—When dyeing light shades time may be saved
by dyeing and wet-starching at the same time, in the same bath. The
feather, thoroughly soaked in hot water, is placed in the starch
milk, to which a quarter teaspoonful or so of formic acid and a
little dyestuff have been added, and then worked, in the cold, until
the proper shade has been reached, the starch being taken up at the
same time. Then on drying and beating, the feather will come out both
dyed and finished. This has the disadvantage of leaving a little acid
in the finished feather, but when using small quantities of oxalic
acid, this is of little, if any importance.
=Suggestions as to Feather Dyeing.=—These processes should enable
any intelligent craftsman to dye even the most costly and most
delicate feathers without danger of spoiling them. Shade effects
in one, two, or more colors can be easily obtained by the use of a
little ingenuity, remembering always that the quill and the stem
are very much more difficult to dye than the flues or tip. It will
be remembered that comparatively few ostrich feathers are now used,
singly; the plumes so abundantly in use, nowadays, being almost
invariably built up by sewing two or usually three feathers together,
one underneath the other, the stem being carefully shaved down so as
not to make them too clumsy.
Very charming effects can be obtained by dyeing the individual
feathers different but harmonious colors, and then combining them
into one plume later. But, usually, the plume is made first, and
then dyed afterwards. It may be suggested, here, that very beautiful
effects can be produced by taking large, handsome, single feathers,
before they are bleached, and dyeing them a pleasant shade of red or
blue or of some mixed color. The natural black of the feather, with
its irregular markings, often gives very interesting results, and the
expense is much less than that of a built-up feather.
After the starching process, the dried feather is usually finished
by “curling,” a process simple enough in itself, but which had best
be left to the professional, for fear of injury. The bleaching of
feathers, also, is a process which is hardly to be attempted by the
amateur, unless he is prepared to spend a good deal of his time and
money in experimenting. The process, however, is well understood by
dyeing chemists and can be learned without much difficulty, by a
careful student with some knowledge of chemistry.
_Stripping Feathers._—By soaking in warm water, containing a
teaspoonful or so of ammonia water to the pint, and then carefully
washing with soap and hot water, these Acid colors can be, as a rule,
stripped from feathers almost entirely. This does not, to be sure,
improve the original quality of the goods, but, carefully done, its
bad effects are hardly, if at all, perceptible, and it enables the
dyer to remedy a bad piece of dyeing, or to dye an old feather that
has become faded or discolored by exposure. This, of course, does not
apply to _black_ dyed feathers.
After white feathers have been worn for some time they generally
become soiled and yellow. If the stock was good to start with they
can be immensely improved in appearance, if not made quite equal
to new, by simply scrubbing them with a piece of Castile soap, in
hot water, and then, after thorough rinsing, by dyeing them, in the
starch-bath, with a very faint trace of blue or bluish violet.
_Black Dyeing of Feathers._—This is the most difficult process in
feather dyeing, and, as a rule, should be avoided by the amateur. It
is impossible, so far, to get a thoroughly good black by the use of
any artificial dyestuff, or any simple process. The best Acid blacks
on the market, dyed with the greatest care, give a color to feathers
that by themselves may look pretty well, but, when compared with
first-class products, show dull and grey.
The only satisfactory blacks, so far, are produced by a long and
tedious series of operations, depending on mordanting for, and dyeing
with, logwood. As a rule, the professional black dyer—and really good
ones are few and far between—allows at least five or six days for the
process, the different steps of which he usually guards as a valuable
secret, which indeed it is. The writer possesses one or two of these
formulas, obtained, as special marks of favor, from first-class
dyers, but has never had occasion to test them thoroughly, and
therefore is unwilling to publish them here. Good dyeing chemists
have tried again and again to shorten and simplify the process, and
have had some success. But to this day no color has been found to
replace logwood, and this black dyeing of feathers is perhaps the
only dyeing problem that has not as yet been satisfactorily solved
with the aid of modern dyestuffs.
_Painting Feathers._—Some dyers, instead of dyeing feathers, paint
them. They dip the cleansed and carefully dried feather, for a
moment, into a bath of oil paint, thinned greatly with gasolene. The
feather is then taken from the bath, dried by waving in the air, and,
when thoroughly dry, finished by beating and, if necessary, with a
light dry-starching.
The results, for colors, are fairly satisfactory but are not so
permanent as the dyeing process. In an oil paint the solid coloring
matter, or pigment, is ground up finely in boiled linseed oil, an oil
which has the property of drying to a firm varnish when exposed to
the air. This mixture is thinned with turpentine or gasolene to the
desired consistency before using.
It is evident that, in coloring feathers, if enough oil is applied
to fasten the pigment very firmly to the flues, there is danger at
the same time of plastering the fine barbules so that they will never
get back to their proper places, and the product will be hopelessly
stringy. On the other hand, if the amount of oil is so small, thanks
to the abundant thinning with gasolene, that there is no fear of its
sticking the barbules together, there will hardly be enough oil left
to firmly fasten the pigment to the flues, on drying, and the color
is apt to rub, and to wear off quickly.
Paint, thinned with gasolene, has been applied to feathers
occasionally by means of stencils, some of the so-called “barred”
effects, looking like the feathers from a barred Plymouth Rock hen,
being made in this way—the color, black paint or varnish, greatly
thinned, being applied by means of an “air brush” or atomizer.
Occasionally very large, wide, and handsome feathers have appeared
decorated with flowers and other figures, in bright colors, applied
in the same way with an air brush, sometimes with the help of
stencils, but generally free-hand. These effects are often rather
crude and inartistic, but there is no reason why, skilfully used,
this method of decorating the backs of feathers might not produce
interesting effects.
CHAPTER X
LEATHER AND LEATHER DYEING
So far as can be learned, in every part of the world, the first
materials used by man for clothing and coverings were the skins of
animals. In its natural condition, however, the hide stripped from a
dead animal has certain properties which greatly interfere with such
use. When dry it is stiff and hard; when moist it rapidly decomposes,
and when exposed to hot water it swells and in time dissolves. These
difficulties had to be overcome before skins and furs could be
properly utilized. And, accordingly, in the history of every nation
and race, one of the very earliest of all developing industries was
the art of leather making; that is, of converting the hard and easily
decomposed rawhide into a soft, pliable, and comparatively permanent
substance, well suited for the use of man.
In most uncivilized nations this conversion was accomplished by
rubbing and working some oily or greasy substance into the hide,
until it was thoroughly soft and flexible. Thus, in our Indian
tribes, the old squaws would turn the deer skins and the pelts of
various fur-bearing animals into beautifully soft and strong leather,
by rubbing and working into them the brains of the animals. The
Esquimaux and other Northern tribes from time immemorial, too, have
worked out this method with great perfection. Indeed without it they
would have been unable to survive at all.
In other parts of the world it was discovered that rawhide could be
made more durable by treatment with metallic salts, especially with
alum, and then, by softening this product by rubbing in some oily
material, a very fair leather could be produced. On the other hand,
in warmer climates, as for instance among the Egyptians, the very
earliest records show the use of vegetable extracts, containing the
substances now known as tannins, for softening and preserving skins;
and these races understood the art of dyeing, painting, gilding,
and embossing the leather thus made, and used it for shoes, straps,
aprons, and harness.
The Romans and Babylonians were famous for their leather industry,
and the ancient Romans not only imported but manufactured it
themselves, and used it freely. In the Middle Ages the greatest
developments in the art were made by the Moors in Spain, whose
leather, commonly called Cordovan leather, from the city which was
the centre of the industry, has probably never been equalled for
beauty and importance. This Cordovan leather, of which fine specimens
are still to be found in museums and private collections, was made of
sheepskin, tanned with bark. It was ornamented with silver foil, laid
on a backing of size, and covered with a yellow varnish or lacquer,
sometimes tinted with bitumen. This protected both the leather and
design very perfectly from injury by air or moderate moisture, and,
being done on a large scale with splendid designs, was used largely
for handsome wall coverings, competing favorably with tapestries
manufactured in France and elsewhere for the same purposes.
PREPARATION OF LEATHER.
In general, we may say that at the present day there are the same
three classes of leather as in the days of the ancients, according to
whether the hide is treated with oil or fatty materials, with alum or
other metallic salts, or with the bark of trees or other vegetable
substances containing the compound known as tannin.
=1. Oil Tanning.=—This, while of less importance than the other two
methods, is still used in considerable quantities for lighter and
cheaper qualities of leather. The process most commonly used is often
called chamoising, or “shamoying,” because it is used principally for
the production of “chamois leather” or wash leather. The hides used
for this form are usually thin and light, the flesh sides of split
sheepskins being the commonest, and the resultant leather is not only
soft and flexible and strong, but is also unaffected by water. For
this reason it is more difficult to dye than other varieties.
=2. Mineral Tanning or Tawing.=
_Alum._—For thousands of years it has been known that if a solution
of alum is rubbed or soaked into a raw hide the fibres of the leather
become changed to an insoluble and permanent condition, and by
afterwards rubbing and rolling, and working in some greasy material,
like the yolk of eggs, a useful variety of leather can be produced.
The alum in this case does not form a permanent compound with the
animal fibres, but can be washed out by working in warm water.
Chemists have agreed, therefore, to call this temporary reaction by
the name “tawing” as opposed to “tanning” where the chemical action
is a permanent one. The “kid” leathers used for gloves are commonly
made by this process.
_Chrome._—During the last few years a new process has been
introduced, based upon the use of chromium salts, which are absorbed
by the hide in the form of the yellow or orange-colored salts,
chromate and bichromate of sodium, and then are reduced in the fibres
to a green compound by the use of hydrosulphite of sodium, or some
other strong but harmless reducing agent.
This chrome leather is extremely valuable, and is freely used,
especially for the “uppers” of good quality in the boot and shoe
trade. This leather is very strong, and is water-proof, but possesses
a serious disadvantage for the dyer, in that when it is once dry it
can never be again wetted, and therefore it must be dyed fresh from
the tannery wash tanks, or not at all.
=3. Vegetable, or Bark Tanning.=—At some very early period in the
world’s history it was discovered that certain vegetable extracts,
possessing in general a peculiar “puckery” taste, also possessed
valuable properties in the treatment of raw hide. This process was
certainly well known to the Romans, for Pliny mentions, as tanning
materials, the three great sources of tannin to-day, namely, gall
nuts, the bark of trees, and sumach. These and many other vegetable
materials, used for tanning, all contain a peculiar substance, known
as “tannin” or tannic acid, which gives them their useful properties.
The tannins from different plants are not identical, although closely
related to each other. They all have a strong astringent taste, and
dissolve readily in water, forming weak acid solutions. They make
dark-colored compounds with iron salts, and convert the hide tissue
of animals into a tough, insoluble, and comparatively indestructible
material which, when loosened and softened by some mechanical action,
is known as leather.
_Tannin._—Pure tannin can best be obtained from gall nuts—small
excrescences on the leaves and twigs of certain plants caused by the
puncture of some insect preparing to deposit its eggs there. The best
varieties, called Aleppo galls, come from Turkey and Austria, where
they are found on oak trees, and contain from 60 to 70 per cent. of
tannic acid. From these it can be extracted in a very pure form,
and it comes to market as an extremely light, fine, grey or light
tan-colored powder, which dissolves in very little water to an almost
colorless solution. Tannin in this form is largely used for dyeing,
especially in the dyeing of cotton or linen goods with the Basic
colors.
For tanning purposes it is customary to use the bark of various
trees, oak bark being the most esteemed in Europe and, in this
country, hemlock bark being the most used. These contain from 12 to
15 per cent. of tannin, as a rule, with a moderate amount of brown
coloring matter. Pine bark is also frequently used, and the bark of
fir, spruce, and larch, while, in Russia especially, much willow bark
and birch bark is used for light grades, the so-called Russia leather.
The next most valuable source of tannin is known as sumach,
consisting of the finely-ground twigs and leaves of several species
of that plant. The American sumach contains more tannin—18 to 25 per
cent—than other varieties, but it is less valuable than the Sicilian
sumach, which contains less coloring matter, and therefore can be
used for tanning light shades of leather. All the materials can be
used in the tannery either directly, or in the form of previously
prepared extracts. From the Far East come some very important sources
of tannin, used for dyeing as well as for leathermaking, in the
form of dried extracts of various plants. One of these is Catechu
or Cutch, now of value only for its tannin contents, but in former
years used as a brown dyestuff as well. A similar product, known as
Gambier, is still imported on a large scale from Singapore and other
Eastern ports. It contains less tannin than Cutch, but less coloring
matter as well. It is used not only for leather but for black silk
dyeing with logwood.
=The Tanning Process.=—Without going too much into detail, the
conversion of raw hide into leather by means of tannin is a very
lengthy and mechanical process. The hides are first softened by
soaking in water, and then are dehaired, usually by steeping in a
bath of slaked lime until the hair is loosened and can be scraped off
with a blunt knife.
This lime must then be extracted by steeping in an acid bath,
preferably containing some organic acid like lactic or acetic acid;
some manufacturers, for the sake of cheapness, use dilute sulphuric
acid for this purpose, with the invariable result of making the
leather brittle and rotten when it is fully dried.
After the acid has been rinsed off, the hides are placed in the tan
liquor, made either by dissolving one of the extracts in water, or
by mixing the finely-ground bark or sumach with water and placing
the hides in the mixture. The tanning process is a very slow one,
especially for heavy hides, and it may take several months before
the tannin penetrates to the center of the goods. When that time has
come, the hides are taken out, brushed off, rinsed with cold water,
drained off on horses, and then hung up in a drying shed to slowly
dry.
When in the proper condition they are thoroughly rolled by hand or
machinery, to break up any adhesions, and to make the leather soft
and flexible. Then they are ready to be finished, are dyed to the
required shade, rubbed down and polished with wax or varnish, grained
by being run through rollers with engraved patterns, and otherwise
prepared for the trade.
DYEING AND STAINING OF LEATHER.
_General._—It has been mentioned, in previous chapters, that animal
fibres of all sorts, such as wool, silk, feathers, etc., seem
to possess at the same time both acid and basic properties, and
therefore they combine readily with dyestuffs belonging to the Basic
and also to the Acid class. This at once distinguishes animal fibres
from vegetable fibres such as cotton, linen, and paper, which, being
practically neutral in composition, will not combine with either
Basic or Acid dyestuffs without the assistance of mordants.
This same rule applies to leather, and we are therefore able to dye
leather successfully with either Acid or Basic dyestuffs, using a
dye-liquor made acid with, preferably, a volatile organic acid such
as acetic or formic acid.
_Acids._—For Basic colors acetic acid is generally used, as being
cheaper than the other, and quite as good for dissolving the dyes
for the dye-bath. For Acid colors it is generally best to use formic
acid, for acetic acid in many cases fails to liberate the color-acids
from the dyes, and then the colors fail to “bite.”
Professional leather dyers, for the sake of economy, often use a
little sulphuric acid in the dye-bath, a practice which is one of the
chief causes of the short life of modern leathers.
With other animal fibres, such as wool and silk, the Acid colors
take quite as readily as the Basic; but with leather, there is some
little difference, according to the way in which the leather has been
prepared.
For our purposes it is hardly worth while to discuss the dyeing of
chrome leather or of chamois leather. The leather almost universally
employed for hand work has been bark tanned, excepting where very
white goods are used, of rather light quality. These are generally
tawed with alum, and for this reason have a greater affinity for the
Acid colors than when the fibres have already been fully charged with
tannic acid, which at the same time, it will be remembered, acts as
an excellent mordant for the Basic colors.
_Dyestuffs._—Accordingly, while Acid colors may be used, they do not
act nearly so readily as the Basic colors. For this reason, except
for special shades such as a clear sky-blue or a pure scarlet,
which can hardly be obtained excepting by the use of Acid dyes,
or where special fastness to sunlight is required, the best Basic
colors, such as Methylene Blue, Methylene Heliotrope, Thioflavine
T (for yellow) and Safranine (for red) are usually employed. For
black, it is well to use one of the many Leather blacks, made by
mixing together powerful Basic dyes. For brown, the standard leather
color, used in enormous quantities for gloves and the like, is the
well-known Bismarck Brown, or for more orange shades, the closely
related dyestuff, Chrysoidine. And, although neither of these colors
is as fast to light as the Basic dyes mentioned above, they give
very satisfactory results. These colors should be dissolved in water
acidified with a little acetic acid.
The greatest pains must be taken in each case to see that the color
is all in solution, and that no specks of undissolved color are
allowed to come in contact with the leather. The leather must be very
carefully and thoroughly moistened by soaking, if necessary over
night, in lukewarm water softened, if the surface of the leather
seems to demand it, with a few drops of ammonia water.
=Dyeing Leather and Staining Leather.=—As regards the application of
the color; dyers generally make a distinction between leather that is
_dyed_ and leather that is _stained_.
In _dyeing_ leather the moistened goods are placed in a tray or pan
(agateware is most convenient for small pieces) and floated backwards
and forwards in the dye-liquor, which should be deep enough to fully
cover them. The liquor is usually about lukewarm on starting, and
may be heated very gradually and gently to about 120° or 130°, if
desired. For light shades, however, this is not at all necessary,
and indeed the color, as a rule, penetrates deeper and is laid on
more evenly when the bath is kept cold. The leather is kept in the
dye-bath until the desired shade is reached, which should be at the
end of half an hour or so.
When dyed in this manner, the dyestuff has a chance to soak into the
leather, and so, when finished, the color is not so liable to be
affected by rubbing or by wear. The leather should come out evenly
coated on both sides, shaded effects if desired being produced later,
by the staining process.
_Stained Leather._—In staining leather, on the other hand, the color
solution is applied directly to the surface of the damp—not wet—goods
by means of a brush or soft sponge, or a little pad of cloth.
Accordingly, no matter how carefully the leather has been softened
and moistened beforehand, the color does not penetrate far, and is
found only on the particular surface where it has been applied.
For flat, even shades, the dyeing process is usually preferable,
but by staining, it is possible for the craftsman to work on the
surface of the leather, as an artist does on paper with water colors,
and beautiful effects can be produced. Oil paint is often used for
decorating leather, and when applied skilfully in thin layers, the
effects are good. But staining with dyestuffs is usually preferable,
as showing more of the grain of the leather, and being more
transparent.
The staining of leather may either be done free-hand, or else by the
filling in of set designs, marked out previously by tooling or some
other method; or, as will be discussed later, by the use of stencils.
In any case success chiefly depends upon the condition of the surface
that is to receive the dye. The surface of the leather should be
dampened, thoroughly and evenly, so that the dye will adhere, and
even penetrate a little; but it must not be so wet that the colors
will run.
To get this exactly right requires considerable practice. As a rule,
the leather is, first, carefully and evenly soaked in water or, if it
is at all greasy, in water with a little ammonia in it. When this has
been thoroughly done, the leather is taken out and dried off, first
on one side and then on the other, with pieces of cloth and then
later with blotting paper. After this it is exposed to the air for a
little time until the exact point of dryness has been reached.
The color solution should be applied with a camel’s hair brush or
a small, soft pad of cotton, and any excess of liquid wiped off,
or soaked up with blotting paper, and the color rubbed in with the
fingers or pad, as soon as possible.
=Acid Dyes for Leather.=—As above mentioned, certain shades are
hard to obtain without the use of Acid colors. This is particularly
true in the case of blue. For the lighter and brighter shades it
is necessary to use one of the Acid blues such as Cyanole FF.
(_Cassella_), or Patent Blue (_Metz_). These are applied in exactly
the same way as the Basic colors. Some of the Acid reds, too, will be
found valuable for certain shades of scarlet, etc., that can hardly
be reached with Safranine. Among the best of the fast Acid colors for
leather may be mentioned:
_Red._—Fast Scarlet, BXG, _Badische_; Biebrich Acid Red, 2B,
_Kalle_, and Fast Acid Red, M, _Metz_.
_Yellow._—Tartrazine, _Badische_; Wool Yellow, 1A, _Kalle_, and
Fast Acid Yellow, 3G, _Metz_.
_Blue._—Wool Fast Blue, BL, _Badische_; Nerocyannic Blue, B,
_Kalle_, and Fast Acid Blue, BB, _Metz_.
When using these Acid dyes side by side with the Basic colors, it
will be noticed that the latter, as a rule, are far more powerful,
and color the leather much more rapidly than the Acid dyes.
Accordingly for _staining_ leather the Basic dyes are the most
satisfactory. On the other hand in _dyeing_ leather, where the
dye-liquor is allowed to act longer on the goods, the Acid colors are
more valuable, not only because they are fast to light, but also
because they will penetrate more deeply and more evenly.
=Finishing Leather.=—After coloring the leather it is necessary to
finish it carefully, to get a smooth surface and to protect it from
injury by rubbing or moisture. Some workers simply let the leather
dry and then rub down the surface (without using any wax or oil)
with the finger or the palm of the hands. Usually the grain or hair
side of the leather is rubbed down with a little wax, the white or
yellow wax, used largely as a finishing polish for tan shoes, being
frequently employed for this purpose. It can be readily obtained from
almost any good shoe store or, if desired, can be made by mixing
together equal quantities of beeswax and carnauba wax in a molten
condition, and thinning the mixture with a little turpentine.
A recipe used with success by many leather workers calls for a
mixture of beeswax, turpentine, and neatsfoot oil. The wax is
carefully melted, mixed with a small amount of turpentine, and then
enough oil is stirred in to make it soft. When used upon embossed or
figured leather this wax is never applied directly, but is placed
inside a little bag of soft muslin, and rubbed on and into the
leather with a circular motion—the palm of the hand being often used
to finish the waxed surface.
=Bronze Effects.=—An interesting point in connection with the use of
the Basic dyes, and some of the Acid dyes, too, for staining leather
is that, when applied in a strong solution, as is very likely to be
the case when one is trying to get dark shades with an application
of the brush or pad, they quite frequently, on drying, show a very
marked metallic lustre. This is due to the formation of minute,
bright-colored crystals, which reflect the light, thus imparting to
the fabric colors which have nothing to do with the shade produced by
the dyestuff itself. Thus, Cyanole FF, _Cassella_, when dissolved, or
when dyed on leather or any other material, gives a rather greenish
shade of blue. But it gives a very brilliant old gold effect, almost
as bright as gold leaf, when applied in a strong solution and allowed
to dry quickly.
When this effect is not desired it can be avoided by building up
the dark shades by successive applications of weak solution, and
by rubbing down the little crystals with, if necessary, a little
moisture, whenever they appear to be forming.
In some cases, however, this bronzing property is of some value, and
enables the skilful craftsman to obtain interesting and effective
results with a minimum of trouble and expense. By painting on a
strong solution of dyestuff, and letting it dry quickly, the bronze
effect will be produced, and then by rubbing in portions, the true
coloring of the dyestuff will be brought out in strong contrast to
the crystal-covered surface. Unfortunately, these bronze effects
are not fast to either rubbing or moisture, and even dry rubbing
will break down the crystals, while rubbing with a damp cloth or a
moist finger will dissolve the color off in blotches. To render this
bronze effect more durable, it is possible to make a regular bronze
lacquer, by adding varnish or gum like orange shellac or gum benzoin
to a strong alcoholic solution of a Basic dye. The bronze varnish
thus produced will, when dry, stand light finishing with wax in the
usual way. The addition of a little benzoic acid to the solution
increases the lustre of the crystals.
CHAPTER XI
SILK—I
So far as we can tell, silk was first discovered and manufactured in
China about 1700 B.C., a date corresponding in Biblical history to
the time of the patriarch Joseph. From China it was exported to the
great and wealthy empire of Persia, and from there was first brought
into Europe by Alexander the Great after his defeat of the Persian
king. Its origin, although known and described by Aristotle, was for
several hundred years a mystery. During the Roman Empire, silken
garments, woven in Europe, from Chinese silk imported by way of
Persia, were important and very highly prized articles of luxury.
About 555 A.D., while commerce with Persia was interrupted by
warfare, two monks in the pay of the Emperor Justinian smuggled
eggs of the silkworm and seeds of mulberry trees from China to
Constantinople. This was the origin of the European silk industry.
It spread rapidly to the various countries bordering on the
Mediterranean, and by the seventeenth century was firmly established
not only in Spain and Italy, but also in France.
Efforts were made to introduce it, at this time, into England, but
without success. In 1622 King James I started the industry, for
the first time, in the colony of Virginia in this country. Since
that time numerous attempts have been made to develop the American
silkworm industry, but with very little success, owing to the large
amount of hand labor necessary to produce the material.
At the present time the very finest raw silk in the world is produced
in the south of France, and next to that come certain brands of
Italian silk. The Japanese silk is more variable in quality, although
steadily improving, while the Chinese silk, as a rule, is less
satisfactory and more apt to be light and fluffy.
With regard to the consumption, it was estimated that in 1907 Europe
used some twenty-five million pounds, and the United States fifteen
million pounds of raw silk, which, at an average price of nearly
$5.50 per pound, amounted to over two hundred and eighteen million
dollars.
=Origin and Varieties of Silk.=—Silk has been defined as a “smooth,
lustrous, elastic fibre of small diameter and of animal origin.” As
is well known, ordinary commercial silk is secreted or “spun” by the
silkworm, the caterpillar form of a moth known as _Bombyx Mori_, the
moth of the mulberry tree. These silkworms have been cultivated for
thousands of years, but there exist in different parts of the world,
notably in India and Japan, wild or uncultivated silkworms, derived
from nearly related, but not identical, families of moths, and whose
silk is collected in the forests by the natives, forming what is
known in commerce as wild or tussah silk.
Of course, the silk from silkworms, cultivated and wild, is the
only one yet produced on a commercial scale. But silk can also be
obtained from other animals, notably from spiders and from a peculiar
shellfish, the pinna, found in the waters of the Mediterranean.
Silk from the silkworm can be divided into two classes, according to
whether the silkworms are the cultivated or the wild varieties. In
each case the silk is produced by the caterpillar spinning a covering
or shroud, the so-called cocoon, around itself to protect it when in
the form of the chrysalis or pupa, awaiting its transformation into
the moth.
The ordinary or cultivated silk of commerce comes from worms fed
almost exclusively upon the leaves of the white mulberry tree, and
cannot be produced successfully without that particular plant.
The somewhat similar worms that produce the wild or tussah silks
live upon the leaves of the oak, elm, ailanthus, castor oil plant,
and others. While the two varieties resemble each other greatly
in their chemical properties, they can always be distinguished,
because cultivated silk is much more lustrous than the other, but is
decidedly less strong.
_Tussah Silk, Pongee, Shantung._—The tussah silks, when woven, are
commonly known under the general name of pongee. Of late years
this name has been applied to imitation goods possessing the
characteristic dull color, and even the feel of the real article,
but far less strong. These are generally made out of spun silk,
derived from “Shappe,” i.e., the by-products of the silk industry,
spoilt cocoons, waste from the spinning machines and the dyehouses,
and the like—silk, to be sure, but silk of very inferior quality.
Accordingly, it is now customary to call real pongee by the name
Shantung, after the Chinese province from which much of the wild silk
is brought.
Shantung, or true pongee, can be readily distinguished from the
imitation by examination of the threads, both warp and filling. These
should be very long, and loosely spun or rather “thrown,” whereas
the imitation threads are spun together tightly, from fibres of many
different lengths, generally quite short.
Preparing Silk for Dyeing.
_Reeling._—All silk, whether cultivated or wild, comes originally
from the cocoons, which are, as a rule, each formed out of a
continuous strand or thread woven by the silkworm round and round its
own body before it passes into the chrysalis state. These cocoons
are collected, carefully dried to kill the quiescent animal inside,
and then, in due course of time, they are placed in basins of warm
water which softens the gum which binds the cocoon threads together,
and the separate fine threads from several cocoons are picked up by
brushing, and are combined into one which is reeled off on machines.
The silk thus obtained is made up into hanks and bundles, and
constitutes the raw silk of commerce.
_Raw Silk._—The raw silk is very different in appearance and texture
to the finished silk that we are accustomed to. It is without lustre,
white, yellow, or even, in the case of some Italian silks, orange in
color, and quite stiff when handled. These qualities are due to the
presence of from 25 to 35 per cent. of gum, which is insoluble in
cold water, but is softened by hot water and dissolves readily in a
hot soap bath.
_Throwing._—The threads of this raw silk are far too fine and
delicate to be fit for the weaving processes or even for dyeing.
So they are combined into coarser and stronger threads by being
“thrown,” a process equivalent to the spinning process of cotton,
linen or wool. In throwing, the raw silk fibres are again softened
in hot water, and are loosely spun or twisted together while still
sticky. Three, four, or five threads of raw silk are usually
combined to form one strand of thrown silk, varying, of course,
with the quality of the original silk and the objects for which the
thrown silk is to be used, when woven. For instance, silk used for
filling—“tram,” as it is called in the trade—is usually thicker and
softer, and less strong than the warp, or “organzine,” and therefore
is usually built up, by the “throwster,” from many threads of less
valuable raw silk, loosely twisted, while the organzine, used for
warp, is generally of the best and strongest available material,
thrown in finer strands out of fewer threads of raw silk, twisted
more tightly.
It must always be remembered that the skein silk is thrown from very
long continuous threads of raw silk, full of gum, whereas spun silk,
which is being used more and more every year, is made from short
lengths of waste and scrap silk, held together not by gum, but by
tight twisting and spinning, just like cotton or linen.
_Stripping or Degumming._—This thrown silk must then be prepared
for the dyeing by getting rid of the gum, which not only makes the
silk stiff and destroys its lustre, but which also would interfere
with the smooth, even dyeing of the fibres themselves. For this
purpose the silk, in skeins, is thoroughly washed, or “stripped,” by
soaking in two or three successive baths of hot, strong, neutral soap
solutions. In the dyehouses Castile (olive oil) soap is invariably
used for this purpose, and, while made of cheap grades of olive
oil, it is always, in good dyehouses, of excellent quality, for the
presence of even minute amounts of free alkali in these baths is
liable to greatly injure and “tender” the silk.
_Boiled-off Liquor._—The soap solution from these stripping baths
is not thrown away in the dyehouses, but is carefully stored as a
valuable reagent. Under the name of “boiled-off liquor” it is almost
exclusively used, by the dyers, for color dyeing. It is not often
used in black dyeing, and therefore, in a dyehouse, the presence of
a large and well-patronized black department is considered of great
importance as providing the color dyer with an abundant supply of
boiled-off liquor.
The stripped or degummed silk is now ready for weaving directly, the
resulting white cloth being sometimes finished and sold as such, and
sometimes “dyed in the piece.” In most cases, however, the stripped
silk is weighted, dyed, and finished “in the skeins,” before weaving.
=Piece Dyeing.=—In dyeing by the piece, the stripped silk is passed
through a weak acid bath, usually acetic, and then woven into goods
of the desired quality. These goods are then dyed in the piece by
being run through the dye-bath until they are of the proper shade.
The dye-bath (for colors) is made by stirring the proper quantity
of Acid dyestuffs into a hot bath of boiled-off liquor (the bath
in which the silk has been stripped), which is faintly acidified,
or “broken,” as the technical phrase goes, by the addition of some
sulphuric acid. This boiled-off liquor has the property of laying
the dyes on the silk evenly and thoroughly, and is better for that
purpose than any other medium. For amateur work, or where boiled-off
liquor cannot be obtained, very fair results can be obtained with a
strong bath of olive oil soap (Castile or Marseilles), “broken” with
weak acid, generally dilute sulphuric acid.
The term “breaking” the soap bath is very significant. The acid
should be added drop by drop to the frothing soap bath until the
bubbles disappear and a thin iridescent film of fatty acid rises to
the top of the liquid.
After the piece goods are brought to the proper shade, they are
finished, usually by carefully rinsing in water to take away all
traces of free acid, then by passing through a cold soap bath, often
with a little olive oil emulsified in it, to increase the lustre;
finally, through a bath of weak organic acid, like acetic acid, to
develop the so-called “scroop” or “feel” of the silk. When silk
is washed in soap, or is dipped in even a weak bath of alkali, it
becomes soft and clammy to the touch, and has no “life” or “snap”
to it when dry. The passage through a bath of weak acid develops the
characteristic stiffness of the silk fibre, and causes it to give its
peculiar rustling sound when pressed.
=Skein Dyeing.=—When weighting or adulteration is not employed,
i.e., in the so-called “pure dye” process, the dyeing of skein silk
resembles the piece dyeing described. The degummed silk is immersed
in a dye-bath containing the dyestuffs (Acid colors) dissolved in
boiled-off liquor, broken with dilute sulphuric acid. The bath
is heated nearly to the boiling point, and the silk turned in it
until the desired shade is produced. It is then taken out, washed
thoroughly in water to remove the last traces of acid, and then
brightened by passing through a soap bath with some oil, and later
through a bath of acetic acid to develop the “scroop.”
_Drying._—An important part of the process is the final drying and
finishing. The drying should be done slowly and carefully, and not
proceed too far, or the silk will be brittle. As is well known to
dyers, silk has the power of absorbing 25% or 30% of its weight
of water without becoming perceptibly damp to the hand, and this
moisture, when not carried too far, is of actual benefit to the
material, making it stronger and more elastic. This property is often
made use of by the honest (?) dyer when, in case some of the silk in
a lot has been spoiled by accident or carelessness, he makes up the
difference in weight by the liberal use of the watering pot.
_Finishing._—This process is perhaps the most difficult and
technical of all, for the value of the finished product depends
very largely on it, and it is almost impossible for an amateur
to accomplish it. The skeins, after drying, are hung on a heavy
polished wooden bar and, with a smooth wooden stick, are shaken out,
straightened, pulled, twisted, and worked until the fibres are all
parallel, the kinks taken out, any weak or injured portion cut out,
and the whole skein has acquired the proper amount of lustre.
Sometimes, for specially brilliant fabrics, the skeins are “lustred”
by machinery; this is the so-called “metallic lustring” when the
silk, generally enveloped in steam so as to be both hot and damp,
is pulled out between two steel arms until it has been stretched a
considerable percentage of its original length. This undoubtedly
lessens the strength of the fibre considerably and diminishes its
elasticity, but under this strain each fibre is stretched out
perfectly smooth and thus becomes much more brilliant and lustrous.
=Dyeing Wild Silks.=—It has been found difficult to handle
satisfactorily the different sorts of wild silks in the factory. The
bleaching of them has been very troublesome, although of late years
the problem has been solved pretty well. And the ordinary process for
dyeing silk with Acid dyes in a broken soap, or boiled-off liquor,
bath is, for full deep shades at any rate, not always satisfactory.
In consequence most of the genuine pongee or Shantung cloth is sold
in the natural unbleached color, a pleasant shade of tan, or else in
light shades.
Perhaps the best results in dyeing pongee silk full, deep, even
shades are obtained by mordanting the material with tannin and
tartar emetic, just as cotton is mordanted before dyeing it with
Basic colors, and then using in the dye-bath one or the other of
the so-called “Janus” colors,—a group of colors on the border line
between Basic and Acid, of which the best are Janus Yellow G, Janus
Yellow R, Janus Red B, and Janus Black 1 (_Metz_).
This process, however, is too complicated for the unprofessional dyer
to use with much success.
For all but the very full shades the craftsman is advised to use the
Acid colors, as, for instance, some of the selected colors of the
different houses, listed in Chapter VII, in a bath acidified with
acetic acid, and without the use of soap.
For dark dull shades the Sulphur colors can be used, especially
if some care is taken to reduce the alkalinity of the bath by
neutralizing or nearly neutralizing the sodium sulphide with a
little acid sodium sulphite. If the desired shade is so dark as to
necessitate heating and dye-bath, it is also advisable to add a
little gelatin.
For full shades of rather brighter quality the Vat dyes may be
employed, also with precautions against the tendering action of the
caustic alkali upon the fibre.
Before, however, starting in to dye a piece of pongee on the
assumption that it is made from tussah silk, it is very advisable
to examine it carefully, picking out the individual threads and
untwisting them, and to make a few dyeing tests upon small samples.
For a large proportion of so-called pongee, which in color, lustre,
feel, and general appearance resembles the genuine Shantung very
closely, is simply made from spun or waste silk, and can be dyed like
ordinary silk.
_Acid Dyes, to be used on Silk._—Any of the dyestuffs mentioned
in the lists on page 127, as suitable for wool, can be used
successfully for silk dyeing. These colors have all been selected as
unusually fast to light and, in this respect, are to be classified
as “practically all of the first class,” i.e., as absolutely
satisfactory against the action of sunlight.
But, for a valuable and comparatively fragile material like silk, it
is quite allowable to use colors for special shades which are less
fast to sunlight, if they possess other valuable qualities. Such,
for instance, are the two red dyestuffs, Fast Acid Eosine G (_Metz_)
and Fast Acid Phloxine (_Metz_), which belong to the group of
so-called Eosine or Fluoresceïn dyestuffs most of which, while very
beautiful, are extremely fugitive. These two dyes, which give shades
of pink and red with yellow and blue fluorescence, respectively, are
considerably more fast than the rest of their group, and will rank in
the third class, if not at the foot of the second class, as regards
light-fastness.
With regard to fastness to washing, it must be remembered that
these Acid dyes are not fast at all, when dyed on silk in a broken
soap bath. They may stand very light washing in a cold soap bath,
but in boiling soapsuds will strip completely. This is important
for the amateur, and indeed, for the professional dyer, for
whom a dyed silk, either skein or in the piece, has come out
unsatisfactorily—uneven or spotted, or too dark in shade—for it is
possible, if the silk is of good quality, to clean off the color
completely by boiling soapsuds, without injuring the goods.
If the trouble is unevenness, while the shade is satisfactory, the
color can be dissolved off in the boiling soap bath and then, on
breaking the bath with a little acid, the same dye can be laid right
on again, it is to be hoped this time in a satisfactory manner. The
question of dyeing silk fast to washing, and also of dyeing silk
black, will be dealt with in the next chapter.
CHAPTER XII
SILK—II
BLACK DYEING OF SILK. WEIGHTING AND ADULTERATION OF SILK. DYEING SILK
WITH COLORS FAST TO WASHING
The dyeing process described in the last chapter, while well suited
for dyeing silk bright and lustrous colors, is not so well adapted
to dyeing it black. To be sure, there are several good fast acid
blacks, such as Silk Patent Black, 2R, _Kalle_, or Neutral Wool
Black, B, _Cassella_, or Cashmere Black, 3BN, _Elberfeld_, or Amido
Black, 4024, _Metz_, which, dyed in full shades in a broken bath of
soap or boiled-off liquor, will give fairly good results. But the
best of these are not always quite satisfactory, the resulting color
generally showing a tendency to be a deep full grey rather than a
perfectly true lustrous black.
_Salt Colors._—Silk may also be dyed black with some of the good Salt
colors—but unless the dyer takes the trouble to after-treat the goods
by the troublesome process of diazotizing and developing, the results
are no better, if indeed as good as those resulting from the Acid
blacks mentioned above.
_Sulphur Colors._—These have very often been tried on silk without
much success, because for dark colors like blacks, it is necessary to
boil the goods in the dye-liquor for some time and to have the latter
very concentrated. Unfortunately the sodium sulphide, necessary for
dissolving the sulphur dyes, is a powerful alkali, and hence readily
attacks an animal fibre, like silk. It is possible, however, by the
abundant use of glucose (Karo syrup, etc.) to greatly protect the
silk from this tendering action. It is also possible for a dyer
fairly well trained in chemistry, to very carefully neutralize the
dye-bath by the cautious addition of acid sodium sulphite, until
the dye-liquor is no longer alkaline and yet the dyestuff is not
precipitated. This process, however, is hardly fitted for an amateur,
and has not proved very successful even among the professionals.
_Logwood Blacks._—Nearly all professional dyers continue to use the
old vegetable dyestuff, logwood, about which some information was
given in the first chapter.
To dye with this it is customary to use one of the many good logwood
extracts on the market. Great care must be taken in the proper
mordanting of the silk before it goes into the bath. For this purpose
the silk is impregnated first with iron salts, and later with tannin,
and in some processes, with salts of chromium or of tin, before
entering the logwood bath. In all cases, therefore, silk dyed black
with logwood contains a certain amount, say 15% to 20% of its weight,
or 2-3 ounces to the pound, of foreign ingredients. When carefully
done this does not injure the material at all, and the “pure dyed”
logwood blacks are perfectly satisfactory both for shade, lustre, and
durability.
WEIGHTING OF SILK
This moderate increase of weight, however, which is hardly enough to
replace the weight of the gum lost in the stripping process, was far
from satisfying the demands of the manufacturer for a cheaper raw
material. And accordingly both dyer and dyeing chemist have exhausted
all their energies and skill in trying to increase this percentage
of cheap foreign matter in the finished silk, to the utmost limit of
what the market will stand.
The first efforts in this direction were based upon the saving of
some or, indeed, nearly all, of the gum which is wasted in the
stripping or degumming process previously described. This gum,
which amounts to from 20 to 35 per cent. of the raw silk, makes the
silk stiff in texture and dull in color and more difficult to dye.
Accordingly, in former years, it was invariably washed out of the
silk with the greatest care before any attempt was made to dye it.
But by modifying the dyeing, and especially the finishing process,
it was found possible to produce the so-called “souples”—i.e., silks
with little or no lustre, but with the characteristic “scroop” or
“feel”—capable of replacing bright silk as a filling in many fabrics
and yet containing almost all the natural gum left in the fibre.
The black silks were then attacked and an elaborate system of
mordanting was introduced before the dyeing proper began. For
instance, the silk can be steeped alternately in one solution after
another, first of iron salts and then of ferrocyanide of potash, thus
forming Prussian blue in the fibre. Then the excess of iron can be
converted by immersion in tannin solutions, such as Gambier or Cutch,
into black tannate of iron, or ink, and finally, after perhaps a
light bath in chromium salts, the real black color is brought out by
boiling in logwood extract. The silk is then brightened by boiling
with good neutral Castile soap, is shaded, if necessary, by dyeing
with either an Acid or Basic dye in a weak bath, and, after drying
and finishing, the finished product may easily weigh two or even
three times as much as the original raw silk, and still retain its
strength, lustre, and elasticity.
_Tin Weighting._—The weighting of colored and bright silks did not
proceed so rapidly, and it was not much more than ten years ago that,
by accident, some French dyers discovered that by immersion in a
strong bath of tin chloride (stannic chloride acidified with some
hydrochloric acid) the silk fibre would absorb a large percentage
of tin salts without necessarily losing lustre, dyeing capacity, or
even strength. This at first was kept a secret, but its use gradually
spread, until now it is a very poor silk dyer who cannot weight his
silk 100 or 150 per cent. without spoiling its immediate commercial
value.
Without going into unnecessary details, the process is somewhat as
follows: The silk, after being degummed and thoroughly washed free of
soap, is plunged into a bath of tin chloride and kept there for some
hours. It is then taken out and the loose tin salts are washed off in
a tank of water (technically called a box), or in a washing machine.
To further “set” the tin, the silk is then placed for a short time
in a solution of phosphate of soda and again washed thoroughly. It
has now gained from 15 to 25 per cent of its original weight (2½ to 4
ounces to the pound of raw silk).
If further weighting is desired, this treatment, first in tin
chloride and then in phosphate of soda, can be repeated three or
four up to five or even six times, increasing the weight with each
immersion. Then a bath is usually given of silicate of soda, which
adds a little weight, ½ to ¾ of an ounce, and, it is claimed,
benefits the lustre and strength of the goods. Then, after a final
washing, the silk is ready for the dye-bath.
The weighted goods are dyed, dried, and finished about the same
as with the “pure dye” process, and the proud dyer can rejoice at
returning to the honest manufacturer from 150 to 250 pounds of
finished silk for every 100 pounds of raw silk (containing, by the
way, 25 to 30 pounds of gum) which was sent in to the dyehouse! This
“tin-weighing” process is also applied to black dyeing, and enables
the black dyer to build up his weight with tin salts instead of
limiting him to iron, chromium, ferrocyanide of potash, tannin, and
logwood.
_Properties of Weighted Silk._—It is scarcely necessary to point out
that silk, weighted to the extreme limit, is hardly to be considered
as the most durable and trustworthy of fabrics, even when dyed by the
most expert workmen. And when carelessly prepared heavily weighted
silk is an abomination, liable to crack and wear away with the least
provocation.
It may be worth reminding some of my fair readers that the old
test of a silk taffeta, “so thick and stiff that it will stand of
itself,” is nowadays anything but a proof of good quality. One or two
manufacturers in this country a few years ago tried to revive the
almost forgotten art of making and selling pure-dyed goods, and one
trouble they experienced in disposing of their products, outside the
high price, was the criticism that their silk felt so light and thin.
_Prevalence of Weighted Silk._—At present it is almost impossible,
at least in New York, to buy pure-dyed heavy silks. The writer, at
any rate, has tried diligently, during the last year or two, to find
for some special experiments a piece of white taffeta which was not
markedly weighted. After visiting department stores and the very best
dry-goods stores in the city, at all of which he was informed that
no such material now existed, the best that could be obtained was
one make of silk where the organzine or warp was fairly pure, the
tram being well weighted. Light-weight Japanese and Chinese silks,
however, undyed or dyed in the piece, can still be procured with
little or no weighting.
_Tests for Weighted Silk._—This silk may be identified by a very
simple test. Pure-dyed silk, when dry, is easily inflammable. When
touched with a lighted match it catches fire at once, “carries the
flame” well, especially if in the form of thread; and, if followed
up with a flame, it will before long burn away completely, leaving
little or no ash or residue.
On the other hand, weighted silk, especially when the added mineral
matter amounts to 25% or over, is quite hard to burn. If it catches
fire at all, it just flashes up for a moment and then the flame dies
right out. And when persistently heated, until the organic matter is
all burnt away, it still leaves a very considerable residue of ash.
When this test is to be made on unwoven or skein silk, it is enough
to take two or three threads, five or six inches long, and to light
them in the flame of a match. For piece goods it is best to pick out
the threads carefully, with a pin or fine knife blade, separating
the tram from the organzine, and then, with a match, to test each
of these in turn. A very little practice will enable the most
inexperienced student to make this test satisfactorily.
Of course, for an accurate determination of the percentage of
weighting contained in a given sample of silk, it is necessary to
resort to delicate chemical analyses. But for all ordinary purposes
this simple flame test is quite sufficient.
DYEING SILK WITH COLORS FAST TO WASHING
As a rule the method previously described of dyeing silk with Acid
dyes in a broken bath of soap, or better, of boiled-off liquor, will
be found perfectly satisfactory. The shades are easily obtained, the
colors are brilliant, and, if the right dyes are used, exceedingly
fast to light, and the material, if properly rinsed, suffers no
deterioration.
On the other hand these colors are not, in the slightest degree, fast
to washing.
The dyed goods can be cleaned with gasoline and the like, but when
passed through a lukewarm bath of soap and water they bleed badly,
and in boiling soapsuds the color can be completely stripped from
them.
In most cases this is not a serious objection, for a person who
will send a handsome hand-dyed silk scarf or piece of embroidery to
the family washtub is entitled to scant sympathy if the results are
disastrous. But occasionally it is important to have colors on silk
which can be guaranteed against moderate or even against, severe,
washing.
_Fast Colors on Silk._—There are two grades of fastness known to the
dyers—“fast” and “embroidery fast.”
“Fast” means simply that the silk is to be dyed fast to ordinary,
careful handling so that the colors will not bleed or run in a warm
or even hot soap bath, but does not guarantee them against every
possible maltreatment.
The best way of doing this is by the use of the Direct Cotton or Salt
dyes, described in Chapter III, which, it will be remembered, only
dye wool or silk at a high temperature, at or near the boiling point
and, preferably, in an acid bath, but, when once on, are very hard
to dislodge. The selected ones are very fast to light and present a
great range of bright, attractive colors, which are nearly, if not
quite, as brilliant as those produced by the Acid dyes.
They are applied in a boiling bath containing a little acetic acid,
and a good deal of salt, especially for full shades. For lighter
shades, the presence of salt is hardly necessary. The goods are to be
finished just as with the Acid dyes, with a soap bath followed, if
the scroop is desired, by a weak bath of acetic acid.
The results, when carefully done, are very good. They possess,
however, one disadvantage for the amateur dyer. These colors are
quite hard to strip, and so, the desired effect must be produced
the first time, or not at all. It is not possible to strip an
unsatisfactory shade in a hot soap bath, and dye it over and over
again without injury, as in the case with Acid dyes. They are best
stripped by soaking in a bath of sodium hydrosulphite, and then
washing.
_Embroidery Fast Colors._—While the above process gives shades fast
enough against all ordinary washing, it sometimes happens that silk
must be dyed fast enough to withstand exactly the same treatment
that coarse cotton or linen goods are subjected to, without bleeding
or staining. The salt dyes are not quite fast enough for this,
particularly because, not having been converted in the dyeing process
into a special insoluble condition, if they should be detached from
the fibre by strong or hot soaping, they would be liable to stain the
neighboring tissues and not wash off quite clear.
One of the hardest tests that colored silk is called upon to stand
is when, in small quantities, it is used with a large amount of
white linen or cotton goods. Thus, for instance, when monograms are
embroidered in red or blue silk upon white towels or napkins, and
the latter are scrubbed, week after week, in the regular wash, the
color must be fast, indeed, not to show some evidences of running.
Hence the term “embroidery fastness” as applied to this class of
dyes. Thanks, also, to the amiable practice of the modern laundress
of lightening her labors by the addition of bleaching powder and
other strong chemicals to the washtub, it is very important that a
silk dyed “embroidery fast” should be able to withstand the action
of these agents as well as of soap. Up to the last few years these
colors were only obtained by the use of the Alizarine dyestuffs, the
full rich scarlet so often used for this purpose being the modern
form of the old, madder-dyed, Turkey red of our forefathers.
But, during the last few years, the troublesome and tedious
mordanting processes necessary for the proper development of color by
the Alizarine dyes, have been replaced, for craftsmen, and, indeed,
by most professional dyers, by the much simpler and shorter processes
of vat dyeing. As long as Indigo was the sole representative of the
class, it was of very little use for silk dyeing. But since the
introduction of the splendid series of new vat dyes, the Algol, Ciba,
Helindone, Indanthrene, and Thio Indigo colors, which, dyed in a
single bath, give a whole range of brilliant shades, wonderfully fast
to light and to washing, the necessity for mordant colors has very
largely disappeared.
DYEING SILK WITH VAT DYES
It must always be remembered when working with silk, wool, leather,
or any other animal material, that such materials are extremely
sensitive to the action of alkalies, especially when hot or caustic,
while they are but slightly injured, if at all, by the action of
dilute acids. For this reason it is always better, whenever possible,
to dye silk with the Acid dyes or the Salt dyes, in an acid or
neutral bath, rather than to use dyestuffs like the Vat dyes or the
Sulphur colors, which need an alkaline dye-liquor. Furthermore,
the silk is likely to have a more brilliant lustre when dyed with
a color which fastens to it by chemical affinity, from a solution,
rather than one where the color is fixed because the oxygen of the
atmosphere changes it into an insoluble powder, while in the pores of
the silk. It is, however, perfectly possible to dye silk full shades
with the Vat dyes and even—though this is not often advisable—with
the Sulphur dyes, by using some simple precautions.
The best Vat dyes for silk are Indigo itself, and its substitution
products, like Brom-Indigo, _Elberfeld_, or the Thio Indigo dyes,
_Kalle_, or else the rather closely related colors like the
Helindones, _Metz_, and the Ciba colors, _Klipstein_. It is of
importance to use only those which are shown in the table on page
102, as dyeing in a cold, or at most, a lukewarm bath.
The dye-bath should be made with a considerable amount of dyestuff,
so as to avoid the necessity of keeping the goods in it long. And
the amount of caustic alkali should be kept as low as possible,
consistent of course with dissolving the reduced dyestuff. It has
been found in practice that the presence of glue or gelatine in the
bath, or even of glucose (molasses, corn syrup, Karo syrup, etc.),
protects the silk, wool, and other animal fibres greatly from the
action of alkalies. It should, therefore, be added in quantities of
two or three large tablespoonfuls to the gallon of dye-liquor.
The wet goods should be immersed in the cold or lukewarm bath, and
turned constantly for a few minutes only, before taking them out,
wringing them, and hanging them up to oxidize. As soon as the color
sets, which is shown generally, by the change of shade and which
never takes more than, say, twenty minutes if the materials are well
opened up, the goods should be brightened in a hot bath of good,
neutral, olive oil soap, and then finished as previously described.
It will be remembered that several, indeed most of the best Vat
colors do not develop their final shade at all, until after the
soaping process.
When carefully done, this process will give exceedingly fast and
quite brilliant colors, without injury to the strength of the goods.
_Comparative Results of Vat Dyes and Sulphur Dyes on Silk._—It is
hard to get full shades with Sulphur colors because it is generally
necessary to heat the dye-bath, and this, owing to the powerful
alkaline properties of the sodium sulphide, is very injurious to the
silk. Besides this, the sulphur dyes are much less brilliant than the
Vat dyes, and have no good red or orange shades in the whole class.
They accordingly should not be used, excepting where no other are
available, or, as will be described in a later chapter, when doing
“resist stencilling” on silk.
On the other hand, such very unusual advantages do some of these
new Vat dyes possess, for the dyeing of silk for special purposes,
that large quantities of Helindones, Thio Indigoes, and other good
specimens of this class are being sold, at comparatively very high
prices, to manufacturers of fine shirtings where the patterns are
made by weaving fine lines or figures of brightly dyed silk into the
linen or cotton fabric. Until the introduction of these dyes in the
last two or three years these shades could not have been produced
fast enough for this purpose.
Sulphur dyes can also be used on silk without injuring the goods, by
taking the precautions described earlier in this chapter. The shades,
however, are quiet and dull, as compared to those produced by other
classes of dyestuffs; and it is almost, if not quite, impossible to
get a good full red and, especially, a good scarlet, by using these
colors.
Silk properly dyed with Sulphur colors is extremely fast to washing.
But these dyes, unlike the best Vat colors, are as a rule quite
sensitive to bleaching agents, and therefore are not so well adapted
for general use on “embroidery fast” silk.
CHAPTER XIII
IMITATION AND ARTIFICIAL SILK
Owing to the high price of pure silk and the bad wearing qualities of
the highly adulterated silks, described in the last chapter, there
has been for a long time a strong demand for a fabric which would
combine as far as possible the strength and wearing power of the one,
with the cheap price of the other, while still retaining the lustre
and “scroop” and characteristic appearance of both.
The demand at present is met, and not so unsuccessfully, first by
imitation silk, of which mercerized cotton is the best example, and
second, by the various forms of artificial silk which during the
last few years have been introduced widely in both Europe and our
own country. The competition of these two classes of products is not
at all to be despised. Their quality is constantly improving, their
price diminishing, and their production increasing rapidly from year
to year. And if the silk manufacturers continue to produce such poor
material in the line of weighted silk fabrics as they have in the
past, it will be but a short time before they will find the market
almost entirely divided between pure-dyed silks, on the one hand, for
expensive goods, and some of these new products for cheap materials.
MERCERIZED COTTON
_History and Preparation._—This material was first introduced as
a substitute for silk some ten or twelve years ago, although the
process for making it was invented about 1840, by a celebrated
English dyer, John Mercer. He discovered that when cotton, either in
cloth or yarn, was subjected for a short time to the action of strong
caustic alkali, and then thoroughly washed, the resulting material
was much stronger than before, had shrunk very considerably, and had
a much greater affinity for dyestuffs. For instance, dyes like the
Basic colors, which give but a temporary stain on ordinary cotton,
will dye with some degree of fastness cotton thus treated with
alkali, without the use of mordants. Mercer patented his discovery
and made some use of it in calico printing; as, for instance, in the
making of “crinkled” goods. But the process was nearly forgotten
until, in 1889, it was discovered that, by proper treatment, cotton
could by this means be made so lustrous as to compare not unfavorably
with silk.
To make the cotton lustrous, the goods, after dipping into the
strong alkali, are kept firmly stretched, and their strong tendency
to shrink resisted, until the alkali has been thoroughly rinsed off
and the last traces neutralized with a little acid. If this is done
carefully, when finally dried the cotton fibres will be found drawn
out smooth and lustrous, while still retaining their new qualities
of strength and increased dyeing power. To get good results in this
process the materials treated, whether in yarn or cloth, must
be made of the very best and longest stapled cotton, preferably
Egyptian, and when well done the results are extremely satisfactory.
The lustre is not as good as the very best silk, but it is quite well
marked, and for replacing the cheap grades of heavily weighted silks,
as, for instance, for underwear, linings, etc., the mercerized goods
are of very great value, owing to their strength and durability, as
well as their cheapness.
_Dyeing of Mercerized Cotton._—Cotton, thus treated, is dyed in
the same way that ordinary cotton is, with the exception that it
takes the dyes more rapidly, and, as a rule, gives deeper and more
brilliant shades with the same amount of coloring matter.
For special purposes it may be best to use the Sulphur or the Vat
dyes, but in general this material is best dyed with the Salt dyes,
which are not only easy to apply, but are fast to light, very
brilliant, and on these goods, at any rate, very fairly fast to
washing. As before mentioned, the fastness to both light and washing
may be considerably improved by after treatment of the dyed goods,
i.e., by passing them through a hot bath containing a tablespoonful
each of copper sulphate, potassium bichromate, and acetic acid to the
gallon of water.
This, however, will rarely be found necessary, provided the selected
colors are used, and the color has been applied at the boil in a bath
containing considerable salt.
ARTIFICIAL SILK
=History.=—The famous old French chemist, Réaumur, in the year 1734,
suggested, after a study of the silk worm, and of the method by which
it “spins” the natural thread, that it might be possible to make a
jelly-like substance which could be drawn out into a fine thread and,
coagulating, form an artificial silk.
This suggestion was first acted on, in a practical way, in the
year 1855, when Andermars obtained some curious results by dipping
a needle or fine metal rod into a thin viscous solution known as
collodion, and then drawing it out rapidly, made fine, smooth threads
as the material solidified. This collodion, which for many years has
been in common use in minor surgery to paint on wounds and cuts,
because it leaves a film of artificial skin, and in more recent times
has been much used in photography, is a solution of gun cotton or
nitro-cellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether. In 1885 Count
Hilary de Chardonnet made improvements in this last process, and
produced successfully the first real artificial silk threads on a
commercial scale.
_Chardonnet Silk._—He also used a thick collodion solution, but
instead of _drawing_ it out he _pressed_ it out through fine holes
by using very great pressure. As fast as the gummy thread exuded it
was picked up, carried along into a drying room, where the alcohol
and ether could escape (to be condensed later and used over again),
and then the solid fibre was passed into a solution of some suitable
reducing agent, such as ammonium or sodium sulphydrate, which
converts the inflammable gun cotton into its original condition of
cellulose. These resulting threads, being smooth and uniform when
properly made, have very great lustre. Indeed, they are often far
more brilliant than the very best and finest natural silk, and can be
dyed and woven into beautiful fabrics.
This discovery of Chardonnet’s was at once utilized, and large and
flourishing factories of Chardonnet silk sprang up all over Europe.
The first large factory, which is still doing a very profitable
business, was at Besançon, in France, and later a large factory was
established at Frankfort, Germany.
_Pauly Silk._—The success of this process aroused the interest of
other chemists, and before long several rival processes came into
existence, also based on the use of a viscous solution of a cellulose
compound. One company, making the so-called Pauly silk, utilized the
solvent action of an ammoniacal copper solution upon cellulose for
their starting point.
_Elberfeld Silk, Glanzstoff._—The Farbenfabriken von Elberfeld,
famous manufacturers of dyestuffs, took up the manufacture of silk
from a solution of a compound of cellulose with acetic acid; and the
Elberfeld silk, or, as it is widely known in Germany, Glanzstoff,
is every year becoming a more and more important factor in the silk
business.
_Viscose Silk._—A still different process, which during the past
two or three years has been successfully introduced into the United
States, depends upon the curious substance called Viscose, a thick,
sticky solution of cellulose made by first treating wood pulp,
cotton or other vegetable fibre with strong caustic soda and then
dissolving the resulting product in carbon disulphide.
This Viscose was first introduced for many different purposes.
The solvent, carbon disulphide, is very volatile, and flies off
readily, leaving the cellulose behind in the form of a stiff jelly
which, on drying, becomes solid and strong. So Viscose was used for
water-proofing paper, etc., for making solid articles like piano
keys and billiard balls, and even for making opaque patterns in
calico printing. But its most valuable application is for artificial
silk. It is pressed out through fine holes, and the thread resulting
quickly solidifies as the solvent evaporates, and can be dried
carefully and worked up on reels or bobbins, to be dyed later.
_Properties._—Artificial silk, as a rule, is a little stiffer than
natural silk, but has an exceedingly fine lustre. It cannot be spun
in as fine threads as fine, natural silk, but, on the other hand, can
be produced in thick, smooth threads which, stained as a rule black
or dark colors, quite replace horsehair for furniture coverings, etc.
Similar products are made, too, by coating cotton with a layer of
artificial silk.
Another curious use of this artificial silk process is when it is
formed into still larger threads, very lustrous and quite stiff,
and used for plumes and aigrettes. They can be dyed any color, have
excellent lustre, and are extremely useful for millinery.
_Precautions Necessary in Dyeing._—One great drawback is common to
all these different varieties of artificial silk. They are quite
strong, although not particularly elastic, when dry, but when wet
lose their strength very markedly. Indeed, at one time it was
found extremely troublesome to dye them, as the silk skein dyers,
accustomed to work and wring and stretch their silk, with impunity,
in and out of the hot dye-baths, would try the same treatment
with this new product, and in consequence ruin every skein. When
thoroughly wet through in a hot bath the thread will soften until
a skein may hardly bear its own weight. Accordingly, the dyeing is
always done as quickly as possible, and generally at a lukewarm or
only moderately high temperature. The skeins should be handled as
little as possible in the dye-bath, and, when taken out to wring,
should be rinsed slightly to get rid of extra color, acid, etc., and
then carefully dried, not by twisting on two sticks, as is customary
with other materials, but by wrapping in cheese cloth or blotting
paper and then running the skeins backward and forward through the
clothes wringer.
=Tests for Artificial Silk.=—It has been ascertained that all
varieties of artificial silk now on the market are made from some
form of cellulose. Efforts have been made to take thick jellies
made from gelatine or similar animal compounds, and make threads
from them, coagulating them later by treatment with formaldehyde or
similar chemicals.
These experiments have, however, not as yet proved successful.
Accordingly, any test that will distinguish between a vegetable and
an animal fibre will show whether a brilliant thread or piece of
textiles contains natural silk or not. The simplest of tests is, of
course, to burn a little with a match or at a flame and see if there
results the characteristic “burnt feather smell” of charring animal
tissues. This odor accompanies the natural silk. The chemist would
probably make the same test more accurately by heating a wad of the
material in the bottom of a small test tube and noticing whether
ammonia was being evolved, and whether the distillate was alkaline
in reaction. The ammonia and alkali resulting from the nitrogenous
organic matter is a certain indication of animal matter.
To distinguish between mercerized cotton and artificial silk, it
is generally enough to soak the samples for a short time, say a
quarter of an hour, in boiling water and test their strength.
Mercerized cotton properly made would be just as strong afterward
as before, while the artificial silk would be soft and weak, if it
would not, indeed, break down completely. Besides this, it must be
remembered that the mercerized cotton, in spite of its lustre, is
made up of threads tightly spun together from a large number of short
fibres, none of which are over two inches or so in length, while
the artificial silks are made up, like the natural silk, of long,
continuous fibres twisted together to form the yarn.
In general, these artificial silks, manufactured as they are from
wood pulp and other vegetable materials, are to be dyed with the
Salt, Sulphur, or Vat dyes, care always being taken to expose them to
the action of hot dye-liquors as short a time as possible. The Salt
dyes are less apt to interfere with the brilliant lustre, but the
Sulphur and Vat dyes have the great advantage of dyeing in a cold or
lukewarm bath, without any loss in fastness.
The Chardonnet silk has a special affinity for the Basic dyes, and
in the trade is usually dyed both light and dark shades with these
coloring matters, without previous mordanting, in a slightly acid
bath. This practice, however, while simple and easy, is not to be
recommended. For the Basic dyes, with but few exceptions, fugitive
under all circumstances, are particularly sensitive to light, when
dyed in light shades, upon such a brilliant and almost transparent
medium as this is. On the other hand, articles made of artificial
silk, being easily injured by rain, are not so liable to be exposed
to the open weather as some other less delicate materials.
The Viscose and Elberfeld silks (Glanzstoff) have less affinity for
the Basic dyes, and dye more readily with the Salt and Sulphur colors
than the Chardonnet silk, made from gun cotton. But it is perfectly
possible to dye the latter also with fast colors of the Salt,
Sulphur, or Vat classes, providing large amounts of dyestuff are used
to bring up the shade. Indeed it is poor economy to be sparing of the
coloring matter, when working with any kind of artificial silk. For
speed is essential, and the dyer who lets his material remain long in
the dye-bath is liable to get into difficulties.
The artificial silk, after dyeing, should be finished much like
natural silk, by rinsing and then passing through a bath containing
some olive oil, emulsified in a weak bath of soda ash. This increases
the lustre. It should also be dried at a fairly low temperature and,
while drying, kept stretched out by hanging a wooden or glass rod in
the loop of the hanging skein, or some similar device, taking care to
avoid strain great enough to pull apart the weakened fibre.
When dyeing this material great care should also be taken in tying up
the individual skeins and in handling them. Turn them in the dye-bath
as little as possible consistent with even dyeing. The threads,
unless very tightly spun, are constantly liable to come untwisted,
and the knots to untie, causing much annoyance.
In conclusion, when carefully made and dyed these artificial silks
furnish beautiful, brilliant, lustrous fibres, which can be used to
great effect in many kinds of handicraft work. They can easily be
procured with more lustre than the very best natural silk, but even
when dry are deficient in elasticity, and to some extent in strength,
and when wet are very fragile. The price is kept at a rather high
figure, as a rule only from 25 to 50 cents a pound less than that
of good natural silk. But every year the production is increasing,
new factories are springing up in every country, and as there is no
limit to the production excepting the demand, it is probable that in
a few years, thanks to competition, the price will be dropped very
considerably and the whole silk business will be revolutionized. At
present it is estimated that the production of the artificial silk is
not far from one-fifth that of natural silk, and this fraction is
getting larger every month.
Indeed, the rise of this particular industry may fairly be considered
as one of the most interesting, most useful, and most valuable
contributions of the manufacturing chemist during the last quarter
century.
CHAPTER XIV
TIED AND DYED WORK
Hitherto, in this book, the student has been instructed in the
general art of dyeing and coloring the various fabrics, both in the
yarn and in piece, without any attention to the subject of coloring
them in patterns or designs. The remaining chapters will be devoted
to various methods, suitable for craftsmen, by which the dyestuffs
can be applied so as to give more or less definite patterns to the
objects to be colored.
This art, in its general principles, was worked out in various parts
of the world at very early periods in their civilization. In a great
many cases colored designs in textiles were formed, in the process
of weaving, by incorporating yarns of different colors in certain
portions of the fabric.
But along with this, at a very early stage in the textile industry,
there was developed the art of making patterns, regular or irregular,
by the action of dyestuffs upon previously woven goods. In general
there are three methods for doing this which, it is claimed, were
known to the ancient Egyptians just as well as they are to the modern
calico printer. These three methods are known as Direct Coloring,
Discharge, and Resist dyeing.
[Illustration: FIG. 2—TIED AND DYED HEADDRESS FROM AN INCA TOMB IN
PERU]
=Direct Coloring.=—This means the application of the dyestuff or
coloring matter to different special portions of the textile or
fabric, so as to give a colored design, upon a lighter background.
The dye may be applied by dipping special portions of the fabric into
it, in which case the pattern is apt to be a very loose and irregular
one. Or, if the material will take the dye readily enough, as for
instance in the staining of leather, it may be applied with a brush,
or a small pad.
More formal and intricate designs can be made by applying the color
in the form of a paste, through the help of stencils, as worked out
by the Japanese so beautifully, or by means of wooden or metallic
blocks, as in the block printing in the East, which in Europe and
America has developed into the art of calico printing, by rolls run
by machinery.
=Discharge.=—This process is the exact reverse of the preceding
one, in that the cloth or other material is dyed first, and later
the color is either entirely removed or, it may be, very decidedly
altered in shade, in certain special parts, by the application of
some chemical.
The earliest examples of this are where cloths stained with Iron
buff, have had patterns made in them by washing out certain portions
with acid. Just as some of the earliest forms of “direct coloring”
are shown in the dark patterns of leaves, formed by the same Iron
buff dye, upon cloth against which moist fresh leaves have been
crushed.
The discharge process is not as commonly used by craftsmen as the
other two methods, because it has not always been easy to find or to
use a chemical that will properly destroy or change any particular
color, without at the same time, if fast dyes are used, destroying
or at least injuring the fabric. The professional dyer, working in
conjunction with the chemist, carefully weighing the reagents, and
using steam chests and drying chambers with definite and carefully
regulated temperatures, can fully discharge even the fastest dyes
without danger. But this is difficult, if not impossible for the
craftsman, and while the process will be discussed and described
under the subject of stencilling, it will be found, comparatively, of
but little practical importance.
=Resist.=—The third and last method for getting colored patterns
is one which has been used in different ways, by the most widely
scattered nations, and which, to this day, furnishes one of the most
interesting and important processes at the disposal of the craftsman,
as opposed to the professional dyer.
It consists of applying to certain portions of the fabric, before
dyeing, some agent which, acting either chemically or mechanically,
will “resist” the action of the dyestuff at the places where it is
applied. These parts accordingly will remain in their original color,
or at any rate will be but slightly colored, while other portions,
not so protected, will be dyed full shades. This, in many respects,
is the most advantageous way of obtaining patterns for the craftsman,
because no action has taken place tending to injure the strength
or durability of either material or dyestuff, and as the color is
applied in a regular dye-bath there is generally an opportunity to
apply the dyestuffs in the most approved manner.
_Variations in Resist Work._—The resist method has been discovered in
many parts of the world, and has been carried out in many ways. In
Java, for instance, a beautiful art was developed known as Batik, to
be described later, in more detail. These people used, as a resisting
medium, molten beeswax, which could be poured or painted on to the
cloth wherever desired, and, according to whether it was applied hot
or only just warm enough to be liquid, would protect the material
covered, either wholly or partially, against the action of dyestuffs
in a cold bath.
Less elaborate, but still very interesting processes are reported
from many other quarters. As will be described in the next chapter
the Japanese have long used a resist paste, to make white patterns
against dark backgrounds with their stencils. In some of the Pacific
Islands natives have learnt to make patterns by pressing pieces
of cloth tightly between shells, as for instance the two halves
of a clam shell, and then dyeing or staining around them. Other
tribes learnt the trick of tying or sewing flat thin pieces of
wood together, tightly compressing the cloth between them and thus
preventing the dyestuff from reaching those parts of the goods when
dyed later.
But the most common process, and one which is not only the simplest
and easiest to carry out, but also offers to the skilful dyer an
almost unlimited range of interesting and effective results, in color
and design, is the so-called “Tied and Dyed Work.”
TIED AND DYED WORK
In this process, Tied and Dyed Work, the pattern is made by tying
string or cord, more or less tightly, around certain selected
portions of the material. When the goods, thus treated, are
subsequently dyed, these tied portions will be kept from the action
of the dyestuff, and after the operation is finished and the strings
cut or untied, they will be lighter in color than the adjacent parts
of the fabric.
This process has been known and widely used in many different parts
of the world. Some interesting examples of it are found among the
textiles from the so-called Inca graves, in Peru and Bolivia, dating
from before the Spanish conquest in the sixteenth century (see Fig.
2). Some extremely interesting specimens of tied work can be seen in
the Philippine collection in the New York Museum of Natural History,
brought from the Bagobo tribe in Mindanao (see Fig. 5). While
perhaps the most extraordinary development of this process can be
found in the so-called chundries or chunaries, imported from Central
Hindustan, and sold by traders in Eastern goods and textiles at very
moderate prices.
[Illustration: FIG. 3—SHIKAR CHUNDRI, FROM RAJPUTANA, WITH KNOTS
STILL UNTIED]
=Chundries.=—These are chiefly manufactured in the native State
of Kotah, in Rajputana, and have been produced there from time
immemorial, for use as clothing and hangings. Those that are imported
to this country (see Figs. 3 and 4) are generally made of extremely
thin, flimsy muslin, most elaborately decorated in three or four
colors, with patterns made up of an infinite number of small round
or rectangular rings of white or light colors, against a darker
background. They can be obtained in the same condition that they
left the dyer’s hands, folded tightly together, colored red or brown
or black from the final dye-bath, and covered over with hundreds of
little hard knots or lumps. These, on examination, prove to be the
tied places, each tied by hand, by winding round and round the base
of the projecting loop of cloth, a very fine thread, closely laid and
knotted extremely firm and tight.
When unwound, which must be done with much care on account of the
thin, fragile nature of the cloth, the knotted portions often show
most beautiful and interesting designs—done in different colors, put
on before tying, and protected from the final bath by the close tight
layer of thread. Among the most interesting of them are the so-called
“Shikar” chundries, where the design, repeated over and over again,
illustrates some hunting scene, as, for instance, a tiger hunt,
with the animal springing at a man armed with a sword, and a horse
or elephant with howdah. When fully opened one of these chundries
makes a strip of cloth some five or six yards long, and in Rajputana
is used as the full-dress costume of a young lady of fashion, being
folded round and round the body and over the head in most graceful
and charming lines.
On studying one of these chundries one is struck by the immense
amount of labor expended in the tying process. The knots which form
the pattern make, frequently, as many as twenty-five or thirty to
the running inch, and each one is tied so tightly around the cloth,
folded so as to form four thicknesses, and drawn or pressed out
into loops, that it completely protects the part it covers from the
dyestuff, only the tip of the loop remaining exposed. Hence, when
it is untied, there results a small circular or rectangular ring
not over three-quarters of an inch in diameter. To obtain a surface
around which the string can be thus tightly tied, the folded cloth
is evidently pressed out from the back by a thin pin or spike (the
effect can be produced by tying a thin piece of cloth tightly around
a wooden toothpick) around which the thread can be tightly drawn and
knotted, and which usually is left in during the dyeing process and
taken out afterwards.
The patterns are so elaborate, and yet are repeated over and over
again, on the same chundries, with such regularity, that it is
probable that some simple apparatus is used to press out the cloth
in exactly the proper places. This could be done by using a little
frame with holes in it, into which pins of wood or ivory could be
set, like the markers in a cribbage board, for instance, forming
definite figures on which piece after piece of cloth could be placed
and pressed out into shape.
[Illustration: FIG. 4—SAME CHUNDRI AS IN FIG. 3, UNTIED AND SHAKEN
OUT]
The most interesting thing, after all, about these extraordinarily
elaborate pieces of handicraft work is the fact that this vast amount
of time and labor is expended upon such poor materials. The muslin
of which they are made is so thin and poor that considerable pains
must be taken in opening them, to prevent their tearing from
the strain of pulling off the knots of fine thread. Then, too, the
colors as a rule not only are fugitive to sunlight, but are easily
affected by washing. Two minutes scrubbing in hot soapsuds will
almost completely efface the pattern and color from some of the
most elaborate and beautiful of them all. And this is not, as is
claimed frequently by modern writers upon Eastern handicrafts, due
to the introduction of cheap and fugitive “aniline” dyestuffs. The
dyes, used for generations by the Rajput craftsmen, for their most
elaborate chundries, were principally tumeric, safflower, and other
inferior vegetable colors, applied so loosely as to be merely stains
rather than dyes—and it would be hard to get modern dyestuffs which,
applied with any care, would be as fugitive as those commonly used
for the very best examples of these beautiful textiles.
=Tied Work in the Philippines.=—Of different quality is the work of
the Bagobo tribe in Mindanao, interesting specimens of which are
to be seen in the Philippine collection of the New York Museum of
Natural History. As shown in Fig. 5, a headdress belonging to Miss
Laura Benedict, the work is not unlike that done by the ancient
Peruvians, and the patterns, although often exceedingly complex, are
invariably geometrical, and do not approach in variety or in interest
those from India. The coloring, too, is far simpler—practically all
the examples showing light patterns on a dull purplish background.
But the dyeing is most carefully and thoroughly made—taking about
thirty days to complete, dyeing each night and washing thoroughly
each morning during all that time, until the final product is
exceedingly permanent to both light and washing.
Miss Benedict, who was the first white person to enter the Bagobo
country and study and report on their handicrafts, states that the
patterns are made in a curious manner. The pattern is first outlined
upon the cloth by a series of basting stitches, the intersection of
two stitches being the mark for the centre of one of the tied places.
Then the operator, seated, puts over her big toe a ring attached to
a line some three feet long, on the end of which is a simple hook
made from a bent and sharpened piece of copper or brass wire. Holding
the cloth in one hand, she then fastens the hook into one of the
marked places, pulls the part out with her foot, and ties up the loop
thus formed, rapidly and tightly, with waxed thread. This she winds
round and round the loop, beginning with the bottom first, and knots
it tight, using the free hand, assisted, except with very expert
workers, with the thumb and forefinger of the other.
Specimens of textiles thus tied, and not yet dyed or opened, and also
of the toe-ring, line, and hook used in the process, can be seen at
the Museum, along with a great variety of beautiful specimens of the
finished work.
[Illustration: FIG. 5—BAGOBO HEADDRESS FROM THE ISLAND OF MINDANAO]
It is rare that, in our present surroundings, any craftsman can spare
the time and patience to copy the elaborate patterns made in these
ways by the Eastern dyers. But equally beautiful and interesting
results can be produced with very little expenditure of time and
labor, by the skilful dyer, who knows something of the fundamental
principles of design and can use his dyes so as to get soft and
beautiful as well as permanent color effects. It is impossible, in
a work like this, to do more than suggest some of the many ways
in which this process can be used. The rest depends entirely upon
practice—and more can be learned about its possibilities in a couple
of hours’ work with muslin or cheesecloth, and a ball of twine or
tape, in connection with a dye-pot of a good Sulphur dye, than by
weeks of listening or reading about it.
VARIETIES OF TIED WORK
=Tied on Itself.=—Interesting effects may often be produced on long
pieces of cloth, scarfs, and the like, by folding them over and
tying them into knots at one or two selected places, before dyeing.
Fig. 6 shows an example of this, (a) Tied and ready for dyeing;
(b) Dyed and opened out. This when worked out in different colors,
dyeing first, with some light color, then tying and dyeing with
another color, or else coloring the tied and dyed piece with a second
light bath of another color, gives very pleasant results as applied
to draperies—as, for instance, simple costumes for pageants and
out-of-doors plays. It is, however, almost, if not quite, impossible
to obtain definite designs in this way, and it is hardly possible to
duplicate results. But occasionally the process is useful.
=Tied with String or Tape.=—Far more important is the process
generally meant by the term “tied and dyed work,” where the pattern
is made by tying either thread, string, cord, or even tape, more or
less tightly around special portions of the cloth. These portions are
usually drawn out, or pressed out, or folded, so as to form a sort of
loop around which the string can be tied. But occasionally the whole
cloth, laid flat and with but little folding, is tied tightly across,
so that the reserved part forms, when untied, a more or less straight
band.
_Tied in Bands._—It is often desirable to separate one part of a
design from another by means of a broad line or band of white or
light color. This can be readily done by tying a piece of strong
twine or tape, tightly, right across the goods at the desired place
before dyeing it. Quite elaborate and interesting effects can be
produced in this way by first folding the cloth lengthways, and then
tying a width of several inches with a broad piece of tape. If it is
not tied too tight some of the color will work up and down the folds,
under the tape, and give, when finished, curious wavy effects. (See
Fig. 7.)
_Tied in Small Loops._—This banding, though interesting and useful,
differs from the sharp little round or diamond-shaped rings forming
the patterns in the Rajput or Bagobo textiles. These are produced by
pressing or pulling out the cloth into loops or bunches which are
then tied tightly round and round with string or thread, the middle
of the loop being usually left exposed to the dyestuff, so as to form
a colored centre.
[Illustration: (_a_)—_Tied and Ready for Dyeing_
(_b_)—_Dyed, Untied and Shaken Out_
FIG. 6—SAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK, “TIED ON ITSELF”]
Very small loops can be made, as mentioned above, by pressing out the
cloth with a wooden pin (or toothpick) and tying tightly around
this, leaving in the pin until after the dyeing is completed.
Skilful workers can tie quite small loops by placing a bead, or dried
pea, or piece of gravel in the cloth and tying the cloth tightly
around this. It is best, always, to have something of the sort, pin
or bead, to act as a centre, or else the knot, after tying, is very
apt to slip off, and spoil the pattern.
The design for this sort of work should be carefully planned
beforehand, and marked out on the cloth with pencil or chalk. For,
with small loops like this, the interest is more in the pattern
formed by them than in the changes and contrasts in color between the
different tied parts and the rest of the cloth.
A very interesting specimen of work done in this way by Miss Mary
Grey is shown in Fig. 7.
_Tied in Large Knots and Loops._—It is hard for a Western craftsman
to obtain sharp, well-defined knots by this method, of a diameter of
less than half an inch or so. Usually, indeed, it is too much of a
bother and nuisance to try any knots covering less than an inch and
a half. From this size, up to fifteen and twenty inches in diameter,
will be found the vast majority of all American work. The reason is
very simple. The trouble of tying a knot covering five inches is
very little more than that for a half-inch knot, indeed far less for
most people, while the large knot produces an immediate effect not
equalled by a dozen of the latter. Furthermore, with large knots, big
bold designs can be produced, which, with pleasant and skilfully
selected colors, give results far more striking and effective than
can be shown by the small knots, no matter how carefully carried out.
On the other hand, intricate and carefully planned designs can be
worked out with small knots, which cannot be attempted with the large
ones.
For designs with large knots, beside the cloth, which should be soft
and free from dressing, and a ball of soft thick twine or better,
of cheap cotton binding tape, half to three-quarters of an inch
wide, it is well to have a supply of large glass beads, of marbles
of different sizes, and, if these are not easy to get, of pebbles,
beans, hazelnuts, and the like. These are not always to be used, but
in most cases it makes a more interesting contrast to have the centre
of the tied spot come out dark, with the lighter parts, more or less
shaded, around it. That means that the centre must be exposed to
the dyestuff by being stretched out over a marble or pebble, while
the parts around it are tied up. And the tying, too, is greatly
facilitated by having a hard centre to work against.
By tying around one marble first, and then putting in another and
tying round that, a series of concentric rings will be formed, the
black rings showing where the cloth, covering the marble, has been
exposed, and the light-colored part showing where it has been covered
by the tape or string.
[Illustration:
FIG. 7—SAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK, “TIED IN BANDS,” WITH
INCIDENTAL KNOTS. BY MISS MARY GREY]
As before, the design, if at all elaborate, should be marked out
beforehand on the open cloth, and the parts tied in accordingly.
Much experience is required to know just how tight to tie the tape
so as to get a desired effect with each particular kind of cloth,
and each class of dyestuffs. In general, with small knots the string
should be tied very tight, or otherwise no effect is produced at all.
The larger the tied parts, however, the more pains should be taken
to have the cloth folded before tying, so that some of the color may
work down through the folds past the tape, and thus produce shaded
effects, which may be of great beauty (see Plate IV, Fig. a). Of
course, in this, much depends on the cloth; a thick heavy calico
tying with difficulty, but not letting the dyestuff soak through;
while soft open materials like scrim or cheesecloth, for instance,
must be tied much tighter, or the color will work through so much as
to spoil the design.
The student is advised to practise, from the start, tying his tape
with a slip loop, or at any rate a bow knot, and not with a fast
square knot each time, so as to save trouble and bother when untying
later. A skilful craftsman will tie quite a large piece of cloth, in
an interesting and fairly complicated design, in a few minutes. But
after dyeing, while the cloth is still wet, and the tape or string
has shrunk, and the knots have tightened, it is often more trouble to
untie, or cut it open, than it was to make it, and there is always
the danger of cutting holes in it. A little pains in laying down one
end of the tape, before starting to tie, so that, when the whole loop
is tied up, the other end will come out alongside of the first so
that it can be joined to it by a bow knot, will save any amount of
time and vexation.
=Sewed and Dyed Work.=—Besides protecting the cloth from the action
of the dyestuff by tying string or tape around it, the same effect
can be produced by sewing up certain parts of it, before dyeing,
and then, after the rest has been colored, and the loose dye-liquor
washed off, the sewed-up parts can be opened and pressed into shape.
This modification of the process, so far as I can learn, is not
practised by the Rajputs with their chundries, but in the Benedict
collection can be seen some most extraordinary and elaborate pieces
of dyed work made just in this way. The Japanese, also, have been in
the habit of using this method, and sometimes they produce curious
zigzag lines by taking coarse stitches across the cloth, alternately,
first to one side and then to the other side of the centre line,
and then drawing the thread tight. The needle is often used for
borders—for straight lines can easily be made in soft materials (and
such only should be used for tied work) by hemming the cloth with
strong thread, and then drawing it up close and tight before putting
it in the dye-bath. The development of this branch of the process,
however, belongs properly to the fair sex.
[Illustration: FIG. 8—FOLDING THE CLOTH
FIG. 9—STARTING TO TIE
FIG. 10—CENTRE PORTION TIED
TIED AND DYED WORK]
=Dyeing Process.=—Now for the dyeing process. Of course, for
practise, the craftsman will use cotton as his raw material, in the
form of muslin, cheesecloth, scrim, or best of all, light grades of
mercerized cotton, and hence will use the various cotton dyestuffs.
The Salt colors are hardly advisable, because though fast to light
they are not all fast to washing unless well boiled on, and that
means that, unless tied extremely fast and tight, the color would
be bound to penetrate, and wipe out the design. The Sulphur colors
and the Vat colors are the best for the purpose—for they can be dyed
cold or lukewarm, without injuring the fastness of the dye, and give
colors fast both to light and to washing. In general, it is easier
to get even shades with the Sulphur colors, and their shades are
soft and pleasing, but while fast, they are not as fast as the Vat
dyes, and it is impossible to get a decent scarlet with them. The
skilful dyer will, of course, select his class to suit the shade he
is trying to get and also to meet the requirements about fastness.
But, in general, he will use the Salt colors for covering and shading
the patterns produced with either the Sulphur or the Vat dyes. When
using the oxidation dyes, like the Sulphur or Vat colors, plenty of
time must be given for the dyestuffs to oxidize and set before they
are untied. But, on the other hand, directly they are once untied
it is important to wash off the loose dye-liquor from the cloth,
and especially from the tied-in portions, as soon as possible after
untying, otherwise some dye-liquors that may have soaked in without
having had a chance to oxidize, will, when exposed to air, suddenly
fix themselves and obscure or ruin the pattern.
After attaining some skill in this process the craftsman is urged to
try it on more important materials like silk. Most beautiful effects
can be, and are being produced by this means, on soft delicate scarfs
made of Chinese or Indian silks. The Acid colors are, of course, used
for this, and as they take so readily on silk, the possibilities of
shading and over-shading different portions of the design, or of
adding a touch of color here and there where it seems desirable,
offer infinite possibilities to an artistic workman. The combinations
of color that can be produced are infinite, and the curious blending
of regularity and irregularity, in the designs and figures, renders
it a most attractive process to practise with.
One great attraction about it is the sense of suspense, and the
impossibility of telling just what effect is being produced, until
the knots are all untied, and the cloth washed off and opened out.
Another attraction is the feeling of working all the time in an
unexplored or very partially explored country. There is the constant
chance of obtaining at any moment effects never thought of before.
The experimenter is always trying some new little trick in tying, or
in folding, or in dyeing, the results of which can never be foreseen
accurately, and which are always interesting and often very beautiful.
=Tied and Discharged Work.=—One day, in our laboratory, some
experiments were made which resulted in a modification of this
process which, so far as we know, was entirely new, and which
presents very interesting possibilities, to say the least. We made
the experiment of dyeing the cloth first, and then tying it up,
and putting it in a bleaching solution, so as to discharge the
color everywhere excepting where it was protected by the tying.
The experiment was successful, resulting (see Plate IV, Fig. b),
in a series of dark patterns on a light background. All kinds of
modifications of this can be made. For instance, the cloth can
be dyed with a mixture of two or three dyes, some of which are fast
and the other or others can be discharged by the chemical used. The
pattern thus will be the full mixed color, say brown, against a
background of red or yellow or blue as the case may be.
[Illustration: FIG. 11—CENTRE AND CORNERS TIED
FIG. 12—DYED, UNTIED AND SHAKEN OUT
TIED AND DYED WORK-CONTINUED]
The important thing about this modification is to select the proper
bleaching agent to act on the particular colors, and the particular
kind of material, used. Our first experiments were with bleaching
powder (chloride of lime), dissolved in water, say two tablespoonfuls
to the gallon, with, if necessary, a few drops of acetic acid or weak
sulphuric acid stirred into it. This powerful bleaching agent is very
apt to attack the cloth, and only heavy materials, such as scrim or
heavy calico should be used with it. But although so strong, it does
not act at all readily on a large number of the dyestuffs, including
many of the Vat colors. Some of these, like the Indanthrene colors,
are not affected at all, Indigo is changed from blue to a brilliant
shade of yellow. And Thio Indigo Red B produces curious shades of
purple, settling, where exposed to the full action of the bleaching
agent, to orange.
Later we repeated the experiments, using hydrosulphite of soda, say
two tablespoonfuls to the gallon of warm water, as a discharge, with
much better success. The cloth was not injured, even when delicate
materials like silk and light poplins were used. And the great
majority of colors, including nearly all the best Salt, Sulphur, and
Acid dyes, reduced rapidly and well. The Vat dyes will reduce, and,
in the presence of caustic soda, will dissolve out of the exposed
cloth almost entirely, but it is hard to reduce them to white in this
way. In every case the color, after reduction, must be washed at once
in warm soap and water, or else, on exposure to the air, the color
may come back to some extent, owing to oxidation.
A weak bath of hydrosulphite of soda, also, should always be on
hand, in the former bleaching process; for, when bleaching powder
(chloride of lime) or other chlorine compounds, such as Javelle water
or Labarraque’s solution, are used for destroying the color, their
further action can be stopped, and also the offensive smell removed,
by dipping the bleached material into a so-called antichlor, like
this hydrosulphite.
This subject of discharge is dealt with more at length in a future
chapter.
[Illustration:
(a) EXAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK
(b) EXAMPLE OF TIED AND DISCHARGED WORK
PLATE IV.]
CHAPTER XV
STENCILS AND STENCILLING
DIRECT APPLICATION OF COLORS
=History.=—During the last few years a great deal of attention has
been paid to the manufacture and use of stencils for decorating
textiles, not only by craft workers of different kinds, but also by
art teachers in private and public schools.
The art is not a modern one, even in this country, for I have seen
and worked with a series of very interesting stencils cut in brass,
which were owned in Philadelphia by the famous old physician, Dr.
Benjamin Rush, over a hundred years ago, and were used in his family
for marking linen, as well as for decorating homespuns and paper.
The real home of the art, however, is Japan, where, for over three
hundred years, stencils have been in common use, largely replacing
the wood blocks used in other countries, for decorating the common
cotton goods, towels, head coverings, and the like of the lower
classes, and also for ornamenting, where embroidery was not desired,
the beautiful silks and satins of the wealthy.
Ever since Japan has been opened to the world travelers have been
telling wonderful stories of the great skill of the natives in this
beautiful art. According to some writers, as soon as a child is born
it is given a nickname, and with it, as a sort of totem, a design—a
flower, for instance, for a girl—a tree or an animal for a boy—and
the like. This design, worked out carefully, after due criticism from
all the family elders, is drawn on brown paper and then carefully
cut out with a sharp knife by some member or friend of the family.
And this stencil is then sent to the local dyer to be used in dyeing
the infant’s clothes. This same design, or a modification of it,
is attached to the person through life, as his or her own private
pattern, and whenever new clothes are needed they are dyed after this
same pattern.
=Japanese Stencils.=—_Paper._—It is a common fact that the very
first thing noticeable about Japanese stencils, whether brought
from some dyehouse in the interior, or whether made more or less
mechanically, for the American market, to be sold to students or
craftsmen, is the quality of the paper. It is thin, hardly heavier
than ordinary writing paper, but exceedingly tough and strong, and
cuts very easily, without tearing. It can occasionally be obtained
from importers in sheets, and even better qualities can be secured,
from among a mass of old stencils, by finding some which have been
only partially cut or used up, and carefully cutting out from them
the unused portions where these are large enough for the purpose.
[Illustration: FIG. 13—JAPANESE STENCIL KNIFE]
[Illustration: FIG. 14—JAPANESE STENCIL BRUSHES]
_Knives._—In cutting stencil designs our American practice is to use
a sharp penknife, or a Sloyd knife, or, as happens occasionally with
some of my friends with amiable professional husbands, a surgeon’s
scalpel. None of these, however, compare for neatness, accuracy, and
ease and comfort of manipulation, with the very simple but extremely
effective little Japanese knives shown in Fig. 13. The knife blade,
of very highly tempered steel, is two or three inches long and fits
between two flattened plates of wood, tied together tightly at the
bottom but springing apart a little toward the top, as a handle. This
little spring of the handle is most satisfactory. And as the blade,
which is triangular and sharply pointed, is worn away gradually by
the constant grinding and sharpening it must receive, the steel can
be pushed forward from between the two halves of the handle, until
the proper length is reached.
_Cutting._—The Japanese draw their designs on paper with India ink,
and then, with incredible swiftness and accuracy, the lines are cut,
by pushing the knife blade, held with the back downwards, away from
the workman, and through the paper which is placed flat on a piece of
wood or small tray, with depressions in it half an inch or so deep,
to avoid the danger and bother of running the knife point into the
wood.
=American Practice.=—Our way differs somewhat. The design is usually
drawn on a separate piece of white paper, and filled in—in black—with
India ink. This is then placed underneath the stencil paper which,
especially if it has been oiled or paraffined, is translucent enough
to show the pattern through, so that the outline can be drawn with
a sharp pencil. The outline can also be made by tracing the design
down on the stencil paper with the help of a piece of carbon copying
paper. This is laid between the design and the stencil paper and then
the outline of the design is carefully traced with a sharp-pointed
pencil. From these outlines it is easy, with a sharp stencil knife,
to cut out the design, although it is customary with us to cut toward
the body with the point of the knife down, upon a piece of blotting
paper or soft wood so as not to dull it too rapidly.
_Ties and Stops._—When stencilling is taught in America great pains
are taken to show how the pattern must be planned and cut out, so as
to have plenty of “ties” or “stops” in the right places, so as to
hold the stencil together. For instance, in making a stencil of a
large capital O, the student should be warned that, if the paper was
cut all the way around, it would leave a big hole; for the central
piece, which would form the centre of the finished letter, would drop
out, and could not be kept in place. Accordingly, the stencil would
have to be cut carefully, leaving at least two “bridges” or little
“tie pieces” of paper, one probably at the top, and the other at
the bottom of the O, these being the narrowest points, which would
hold the centre in place, and thus complete the figure. Indeed, if
these little “steps” or “bridges” of paper should be left out, or
become torn or broken, the stencil would be useless. But a situation
like this has little or no terror for the Japanese, at any rate when
working for their home trade. Their stencils cut for the American
market while always interesting, and often charming, are cut, as
ours are, from one piece of paper, with stops in the exposed places.
But the stencils that have been used, or cut for use, over there,
show a very different state of affairs. All of the large, handsome
ones, and a large proportion of the smaller, less artistic, and less
valuable ones are made, with almost inconceivable skill and patience,
in duplicate. And the two parts are afterwards pasted together with
absolute accuracy, but with a layer of fine hair, supposedly human
hair, between them. These hairs, laid irregularly but evenly, make a
sort of network which ties together all portions of the stencil, no
matter how disconnected with the rest, or, as we would say, “in the
air,” it might be.
So, too, they are in the habit of sewing in, with the finest of hair
or of single threads of fine silk, loose pieces or broken pieces, and
thus holding them in shape.
It is interesting to study some of them closely and see how neatly
this tying is done and how little the time of these unknown workmen
must be valued at. For apart from the large picture stencils which,
of course, would be worth taking a great deal of pains with, some of
the simplest and most ordinary of their native stencils are not only
cut but tied in, with extraordinary skill. One of these, valued here
at but a few cents, consisted of a background of small figures in
shape and size very much like a capital O of the type of this page.
The stencil measures some eighteen by ten inches, and there must be
between fifteen hundred and two thousand of these O figures on it.
Some few of these are now imperfect, but with the exception of a
dozen or two, every single one of all these has had the centre cut
out, and then sewed into place again, from the sides, so as to be in
the exact centre, without a single “stop” or “tie” on the whole paper.
_Brushes._—With stencils so very delicately made, it is evident that
our crude American style of rubbing in the color, with heavy hands
and stiff bristle brushes, would not be much of a success! About one
good rub with a brush like that, and every hair in sight would be
torn and broken, and what was a minute before a work of art would be
a torn mass of brown paper.
Whether any of our American craftsmen have light enough hands to
use, successfully, a fine Japanese stencil is doubtful. Personally,
I could no more stencil six inches with any of them without ruining
it or making a mess of the cloth than I could in a year cut, without
tearing, six square inches of any one of a score of cheap and
ordinary Japanese stencils which I own, either presented to me or
sold at a very low price, as being really too insignificant in value
to amount to anything.
But at any rate, the Japanese do not use a stiff bristle brush. Their
brushes, in general, are of two sorts, as shown in Fig. 14. One is a
sort of pad, often quite large, five or six inches in diameter, made
of rabbit’s fur, tightly bound together with cord or wire, and with
a bundle of small sticks spreading out to enclose the pad, and drawn
together and tied above, at the upper end, in a sort of pyramid.
[Illustration: FIG. 15—JAPANESE STENCIL, SHOWING HOLES PUNCHED BY
HAND TOOL]
[Illustration: FIG. 16—JAPANESE STENCIL, EXACT SIZE, SHOWING USE OF
STOPS]
[Illustration: FIG. 17—JAPANESE STENCIL, EXACT SIZE, SHOWING USE OF
SEWING INSTEAD OF STOPS]
The other variety is a true brush, of a more ordinary shape, like
a flat paint brush, but also made of the very softest and finest,
most velvety hairs imaginable, laid extremely close together, and
compressed tightly between the two halves of the handle. These can
be obtained occasionally from the dealers at reasonable prices, and
are delightful to work with. Only, being meant for the soft, light
touches of their native workmen, they do not last long when rubbed
down on the cloth as is our practise. Their life is considerably
increased by pouring some molten beeswax into the back of both goods
and brushes with a batik pot, or Tjanting, which prevents the fine
hairs from pulling out until the brush is all worn to pieces.
_The Care of Stencils._—A word may here be said about taking care of
stencils, after they have been cut or purchased. They should always
be used on one side, and carefully wiped off with a damp cloth,
directly after using. They should always be kept flat, never folded.
And, when using them, it must always be remembered that the ties or
bridges are the weak spots, and that breaking or tearing them, as a
rule, will spoil the stencil. It is, of course, possible to mend them
by sewing, or sometimes by patching with tape. But this is always
troublesome, and with well paraffined stencils is rarely satisfactory.
_The Different Methods of Using Stencils._—In this country, so far
as can be ascertained, the common way in which stencils have been
used is by brushing through them, on to the cloth, oil paints thinned
with turpentine or gasoline. As previously explained, in the chapter
on feather dyeing, this is not very satisfactory. For when paint is
sufficiently thick to adhere well to the cloth, it is apt to look
stiff and shiny. And when it is applied so thin that the structure
of the cloth shows through, it is, as a rule, not fast to washing
or even to rubbing. Various varnishes are on the market which help
considerably to make the paint fast, but even then the results are
not nearly so durable as when the proper dyestuffs are used.
The Japanese practice is exclusively with dyes, and they have worked
out processes which are perfectly satisfactory, so that their simple,
cheap, stencilled towels can stand washing indefinitely without loss
of color. And by the use of modern dyestuffs there is no insuperable
obstacle to our doing just as well as they.
The use of stencils gives an excellent opportunity to illustrate the
three general methods of coloring fabrics, which, as mentioned in the
last chapter, consist of:
Direct application of color.
Resist, and
Discharge.
The last two of these will be reserved for the next chapter.
[Illustration: FIG. 18—JAPANESE STENCILS, EXACT SIZE, SHOWING USE OF
BOTH STOPS AND NET]
=Direct Application of Color.=—In this intricate work it will
generally be found almost a necessity to apply colors through a
stencil in the form of a paste, for when the coloring liquid is thin
it is very apt to run under the edges of the paper and spoil the
design. It is best to thicken it with a little “gum dragon,” a
carefully prepared paste of gum tragacanth, to which the coloring
matter, and any reagents that are needed, can be added. The nature of
the reagents and the class of dyestuffs used depends, of course, upon
the kind of material to be stencilled.
=(a) Leather.=—While not very often used, students interested in
leather work will find a carefully designed and neatly cut stencil a
most useful medium for obtaining interesting and beautiful effects.
The leather, whether bark- or alum-tanned, should be carefully
dampened, and then stencilled with a paste containing Basic colors
dissolved with a drop of acetic acid. On drying, the leather should
be finished as usual. The Acid colors are not nearly so satisfactory
for stencilling, although, as already mentioned, they are often
advantageous for dyeing, rather than staining, leather fast colors.
=(b) Silk.=—Silk may easily be stencilled provided the pattern is not
expected to be fast to washing.
1. _Acid Colors._—These dyes, mixed with a few drops of formic or
acetic acid, will color it well, but to make the dyestuff penetrate
it is advisable to steam the goods. This can be done with a teakettle
provided with a wing tip for the spout, made of tin, or by heating a
flatiron or iron plate very hot, and pressing the stencilled goods
back down against it, with a damp cloth in between. The hot steam
thus produced, passing through the goods, melts the paste and drives
the color down into the fibres and sets it there, so that, later,
the stencilled goods will stand light rinsing in lukewarm soap and
water without running.
2. _Salt Colors._—Faster results can be obtained, on silk, with
a paste containing salt dyes, with a drop or two of acetic acid,
provided the silk is thoroughly steamed afterwards.
3. _Basic Colors._—Basic dyes may be used on silk as on wool,
leather, or any other animal fibres for direct application, the
dyestuff dissolved with a drop of acetic acid, being added to the
paste, and then brushed in and, preferably, lightly steamed to sink
the paste down into the fibres. These dyes, however, with but few
exceptions, are not fast to light, and applied in this way are not
fast, either, to washing. By adding some reagents to the paste,
however, a Basic stencil paste can be formed which gives colors on
silk which will stand active scrubbing excellently.
The Basic Stencil Paste is prepared by mixing with the paste a
solution containing the Basic color, dissolved in acetic acid, and
also containing a considerable quantity of tannic acid. As long as
there is free acetic acid present in this mixture the color remains
in solution, but directly the acid is driven off, an insoluble
compound remains, formed by the combination of the tannic acid with
the color base. This happens on steaming, and the insolubility of the
product is still further increased by passing it through a weak bath
or wetting it with a weak solution (half a teaspoonful to the quart)
of tartar emetic.
Accordingly, to use this stencil paste on silk or, indeed, on cotton,
the slightly dampened goods are stencilled with the paste, thinned
if desired with water and a little acetic acid. Then directly they
are dry enough so as not to run they are well steamed, then the gum
rinsed off with a little warm water, and the goods moistened with the
tartar emetic. After this they can be washed with soap with little or
no danger of running.
=(c) Wool.=—Wool is rarely stencilled, although stencil patterns
can be produced very well on it by using acid colors with a little
oxalate of ammonia (about the same amount as the dyestuff),
dissolved in a drop or two of water, and thickened with a little
gum tragacanth. When this paste is applied with a brush, and then
dried, the result is not fast at all, merely a distinct stain; but
if steamed at once the oxalate of ammonia decomposes, leaving oxalic
acid, which, combining with the color and melting down with it in the
fibres, makes the dyestuff adhere quite firmly.
=(d) Cotton and Linen.=—It is much more difficult to stencil
satisfactorily on vegetable goods, such as cotton and linen, than
on the animal fibres above mentioned, because they are expected to
stand very much more severe treatment. The fastness to washing needed
for a handsome silk scarf is far less than for a cotton shirtwaist,
or linen table-cover, and unless the results on the latter are at
least as fast as the average calico print, the result is considered a
failure.
There are three classes of dyes which can be used in this connection,
the Basic dyes, the Sulphur dyes, and the Indigo or Vat dyes. The
Basic stencil pastes have just been described, in connection with
silk stencilling, and when carefully used they will give very fair
results on cotton, and even on linen, provided it is free from
dressing, and is not too coarse and thick. It is hardly worth while
trying to fasten Basic dyes, by hand stencilling, upon such materials
as heavy, coarse Russian crash, for instance, such as friends and
students have frequently brought in to experiment with. But for
light, thin materials, and especially for mercerized goods, poplins
and the like, it is possible, with a little practice, to get effects
that are fast to ordinary washing.
On the other hand, this method of stencilling has certain
disadvantages. It is rather complicated, needing the use of a fixing
bath of tartar emetic, a very active poison, by the way, although
more uncomfortable than actually dangerous when taken by mistake
in one dose, because of the severe vomiting it produces almost
immediately. And then, too, the results at best are not really fast
to light, and in the case of light pinks and yellows are distinctly
fugitive.
_Vat Color Stencil Pastes._—Many experiments have been made in our
laboratory to work out a satisfactory stencil paste, so that Indigo
and other Vat dyes could be applied, simply and easily, with no more
difficulty than the usual one of brushing the paste in carefully, and
then steaming as soon as possible. In these stencil pastes the Indigo
and the other Vat dyes are reduced with the aid of caustic alkali and
hydrosulphite before being mixed with the paste, and some special
precautions are taken to prevent, as far as possible, the oxidation
of the dyestuff before it gets well into the fibre. But, as the
ordinary hydrosulphite is apt to decompose on standing, especially
when it is wet, it is always best, just before using, to mix well
with the paste a little fresh reducing agent, dissolved in a drop of
hot water. The reducing agent that should be used for this purpose
is not the ordinary hydrosulphite of soda, used for vat dyeing, but
a compound of sodium hydrosulphite, “Stencil Salt,” which has the
property of keeping better than the other, and also of not acting as
a reducing agent until it is heated. This, then, is stirred into the
Vat color stencil paste, just before using, and then, when the goods
are steamed, the heat and moisture combined will enable it to reduce
the color, which will be carried into the fibres in a reduced and
dissolved condition. After steaming well for five minutes the color
should be developed by a bath in hot soapsuds, after which the goods
should be rinsed and dried. With care this process will give very
satisfactory results, perfectly fast to both light and washing, after
the first loose color has been washed off.
The indigo stencil paste, as prepared, will keep well reduced for
quite a long time, and it is frequently quite unnecessary to add any
fresh reducing agent to it. If, when taken from the tube or bottle,
it looks yellow or yellowish green, it can be applied at once to the
cloth, and, if steamed just as soon as possible, it will generally
penetrate quite satisfactorily. With the other colors of the series,
however, it is hard to tell by the color whether they are reduced or
not, and hence the fresh reducing agent, Stencil Salt, should always
be added to them. The cloth for stencilling with these pastes,
as with the Basic pastes, should not be too thick or heavy, and
must be washed quite free from dressing, or the result will not be
satisfactory. It should also be slightly dampened, if only by holding
over boiling water for a moment or two, so as to help the color to
penetrate.
_Sulphur Stencil Paste._—We have also found very satisfactory results
from pastes made with one of the Sulphur colors, dissolved in a
little sodium sulphide and sodium carbonate, and stiffened with a
little gum. The presence of a reducing agent helps to keep the color
reduced; and, when quickly applied and rapidly steamed, the colors
will sink into the fibre and adhere firmly.
The chief drawback with these pastes is the lack of a good red.
=Black Stencil Paste.=—So far as can be learned, the Japanese use for
their stencilling an Indigo paste made on the same general principles
as the one just described. Besides this, which is a very favorite
color of theirs, they use a red and also a very full black dye, both
of which are fast to washing and to light.
What the composition of these last pastes may be it is hard to tell.
In our laboratory we have made careful experiments on the subject
of stencilling black, and have worked out a method that we consider
satisfactory by the use of a modification of the well-known Aniline
Black process.
[Illustration: FIG. 19—LARGE AND HANDSOME JAPANESE STENCIL, SHOWING
USE OF NET]
_Aniline Black._—It was noticed, early in the history of dyestuffs,
that if aniline was mixed with strong oxidizing agents, and carefully
heated, it would undergo a series of color changes resulting,
finally, in black. This color, so-called “Aniline Black,” was at
one time manufactured and used for a black pigment; but it was soon
recognized that its real value would only be developed when it
could be formed, in the fibre itself, by the oxidation of aniline
or some compound of aniline upon the fibres. After many years of
experimenting this problem was solved, and for fifteen or twenty
years the blacks most used on cotton and linen by the calico
printers, as well as by the dyers, have been one or another of the
forms of Aniline Black.
The principle on which these processes are based is as follows: The
aniline, usually in the form of aniline salt (aniline hydrochloride),
is mixed with an oxidizing agent like chlorate of soda, and also
with a small amount of a third substance which, on steaming, acts
as a carrier of oxygen between the aniline and the chlorate. This
substance, often called a catalytic agent, because at the end of the
operation it remains unchanged, although it has accomplished a large
amount of work, may be one of a number of compounds as, for instance,
a salt of the metal vanadium, prussiate of potash, a salt of copper,
etc., each one having special advantages and disadvantages of its own.
Now, almost any printing paste properly composed so as to give a
good clear Aniline Black on steaming, (the formulæ can be obtained
from any good book on calico printing, or from any competent dyeing
chemist), will generally work fairly well as a stencil paste—as
long as it is fresh. But even when kept from the air as far as
possible, in a tight tube, it decomposes on standing and becomes very
unsatisfactory. Besides this, there is always a difficulty with these
regular pastes on account of the irregular and uncertain steaming
process that can be used by the average craftsman. In a calico print
works, the temperature of the steam chest, the proportion of steam
in it, and the length of passage of the cloth through it, are all
accurately determined, and kept at the exact points necessary for the
best results with any given formula. But with irregular steaming,
unless very great care is taken with the formula, there is always a
danger of “tendering” and burning the fibre, if too much oxidizing
agent is present, or of not developing a full black, but a dark green
color, if the oxidizing agent is not active enough.
We have, after a great deal of experimenting, worked out a formula
which, with reasonable care in steaming, will give a good full black,
absolutely fast to light and washing, upon cotton, linen, and silk,
without any tendering of the cloth. And, by dividing up the component
parts into two separate pastes, which are kept in separate tubes or
bottles, and are mixed together only when about to be used, we have
gone far to solve the important problem of keeping.
The use of this Black stencil paste is very simple. It comes in two
tubes or bottles marked A and B.
When the cloth, free from dressing and slightly dampened, is all
ready, equal amounts are taken from each of the two tubes, and mixed
together in a watch-glass or small glass or porcelain dish with, if
necessary, a drop of water to soften them if they have dried up at
all. This mixed paste is then brushed on to, and into, the cloth,
and, as soon as dry, is steamed as before described. The black color
will develop almost immediately, and, after a few minutes’ steaming,
will be found fast to hard washing as well as to light.
CHAPTER XVI
RESIST AND DISCHARGE STENCILLING
Travelers in Japan inform us that, with their customary ingenuity,
the natives there have developed the use of stencils to a point which
quite matches the best achievements of our modern calico printers,
even though backed by good dyeing chemists. When a young lady there
wishes a new dress, she will draw, perhaps with the help of her best
young man, and certainly with the advice and criticism of her family,
her favorite design on a piece of brown paper, cut it out in stencil
form, and send it to the local dyer, with the proper amount of calico
or silk or what not, to be properly applied.
Now, in most cases the dyer is instructed to put the pattern on the
cloth in colors, blue, black, red, yellow, or mixed shades, and this
he does, much as my readers were taught to do in the last chapter, by
painting on a stencil paste, to be fixed later by steaming.
The Japanese dyer, by the way, has a great advantage over the
American craftsman in his steaming apparatus. No matter how small his
place, or how poor his equipment, he always is provided with a neat
and satisfactory steam chest, consisting of a copper pot set in a
brick or stone fireplace, to hold the boiling water, and above it, a
close-fitting box with sides made of lacquered paper, double jacketed
to avoid condensation in cold weather, which can be kept full of dry
steam for hours at a time, and in which the stencilled goods can be
steamed thoroughly and well without fear of spoiling them.
Sometimes, however, the color is to be applied in another way; the
cloth itself is to be colored blue or red or black, and the pattern
is to be light, either pure white or some light color on a dark
background.
The Japanese dyer, from time immemorial, has known how to do this
properly, by means of a “Resist.” He prepares a resist paste which he
carefully applies to the cloth through the stencil. This is allowed
to dry, the cloth is then dyed, and, after the color is properly
fixed, it is all thoroughly scrubbed, and the paste, washing off,
leaves the cloth, underneath, in its original color.
_Resist Stencil Paste._—This process of resist, ancient as it is, is
used in Japan to this day, and many, indeed most, of the stencilled
towels and piece goods that come from there are done in this way. It
has the advantages, especially for the craftsman, over the Direct
Color process, in that the color, being applied in a dye-bath, can be
fixed readily and uniformly, without the bother and uncertainty of a
steaming process. Through a friend, a well-known dyeing chemist, who
has travelled in Japan, I learned the composition of the Japanese
Resist Paste. They mix rice flour, wheat bran, and a little quicklime
(the calcium oxide of the chemist) with water and boil it to make
a paste. This they strain, and then they stir in some powdered
carbonate of lime (powdered chalk), which thickens and gives some
body to the mixture. The paste thus formed is applied, as a rule, not
with a brush but with a flat wooden instrument or spatula, with which
the paste is laid on as with a trowel, and further, to get the dead
white effects so commonly noticed, the paste is put on the back of
the cloth as well as on the front.
My friend also explained to me how the Japanese were able to get
irregular shaded effects with their stencil work, and at the same
time to furnish such beautiful and intricate hand-made work, at
such absurdly low prices. These goods are made of very thin porous
materials, and the dyer applies with his trowel the thick resist
paste, through the stencil, to one piece after another, laying each
one, as fast as it is stencilled, carefully on top of the previous
one, until a pile has been formed of ten or more separate pieces.
This pile is pressed very tightly together, and then the dyestuff,
as, for instance, Indigo in solution and thoroughly reduced, is
poured on to this mass of goods, soaking through from one to the
other, but always kept out of the white parts by the double coating
of thick paste.
After a few minutes these pieces are carefully taken off, one by one,
exposed to the air until oxidized, and then thoroughly washed until
the paste and loose color have all disappeared. For an example of
Japanese resist stencil work, dyed in an iron spring, see Plate III.
[Illustration: PLATE V. JAPANESE TOWELLING DYED BY IMMERSION IN IRON
SPRING. THE WHITE PATTERN IS CAUSED BY RESIST STENCILLING]
_Resist Stencilling with Sulphur Dyes._—Without lavishly copying
the Japanese practice it is possible to get very interesting results
by using suitable dyestuffs with a simpler paste.
The most useful dyes for this purpose are the Sulphur dyes, which,
as the student will remember, can be applied in the cold, with very
short exposure to the dye-liquor, and are fixed firmly by exposure
to the air, giving results fast to light and extremely fast to
washing. A paste made from wheat flour, thickened a little with an
inert powder, like powdered chalk or zinc oxide, will work fairly
well, acting as a purely mechanical protection to the fibre. But much
better results can be obtained by adding to the paste as much as it
will absorb of the easily soluble chemical, zinc sulphate, which acts
chemically in resisting the action of these particular dyestuffs.
The Sulphur colors, as before explained, are kept in solution in
the dye-bath, by the presence of sodium sulphide, and when this is
absent or is destroyed by any cause, the dyestuff is precipitated
as an insoluble, inert powder. Now, when zinc sulphate comes in
contact with sodium sulphide it at once decomposes the latter,
forming a white precipitate, zinc sulphide, which has no action at
all on either dyestuff or cloth. Accordingly a paste containing zinc
sulphate has far greater efficiency as a resist than any mixture that
acts purely mechanically.
Resist stencil pastes can be obtained, in tubes, at moderate prices,
but can also be readily prepared by making not too stiff a paste,
with wheat flour thoroughly boiled with a saturated solution of zinc
sulphate instead of with water, and then stirring into this paste
some powdered chalk or zinc oxide, until of the proper consistency
for stencilling.
To use this paste, the cloth, as usual, should be washed free from
dressing, and after being smoothed with a hot iron, should be
slightly dampened. The paste is then brushed through the stencil on
to, and into, the cloth, which is then allowed to dry. The dye-bath
should then be prepared of Sulphur dyes carefully dissolved, in a
separate cup or saucepan, in a hot solution of sodium sulphide and
sodium carbonate (soda), and added to cold water in the dye-bath.
A few drops of “Turkey red oil” added to the dye-bath helps to
prevent a thick scum from forming on top of the liquor, while the
addition of a tablespoonful of salt dissolved in a little hot water
helps the rapidity and depth of the dyeing.
Plenty of color should be used excepting for very light shades, for
the dyeing should be done just as quickly as possible. For silk some
syrup should be added.
The stencilled cloth is then quickly moistened in cold water, placed
in the dye-bath, kept there two or three minutes, below the level of
the liquid; it is then taken out, the liquor drained off, and after a
minute or two, wrung off; the cloth is then shaken out, and exposed
to the air, for some ten minutes, to set the color. After this it is
well washed in a boiling soap bath, and, as the paste washes out, the
stencilled pattern will show light against the dark background.
The whiteness of the pattern depends, of course, upon the skill
with which the paste has been applied, and the care taken to prevent
it from washing off before or during the dyeing process. It is
difficult, though not absolutely impossible, to get as sharp and
clear-cut results as those of the Japanese, for instance. But, on the
other hand, with a dark background it is often, indeed generally,
more pleasing to have the white patterns softened and not standing
out too vividly.
In our laboratory we have had considerable success with this process.
And some of our friends and students have used it with very good
results upon articles of clothing, which, made of linen, calico,
etc., must be fast to severe washing as well as to light.
Of course, it is perfectly easy to alter the color of the background,
as in other classes of resist work, such as Tied and Dyed work, for
instance, or Batik, by either starting off with colored cloth which
is protected all through by the resist paste, or else by covering
the stencilled and dyed goods, afterwards, with some shade which
will soften and harmonize both pattern and background. For this
covering shade, which need not be very fast to washing, but must be
distributed uniformly over the whole cloth, the student will find the
Salt colors very useful.
_Discharge Stencilling._—Though it is not certain whether this
process is known to, and used by, the Japanese, it is not a difficult
matter, with modern dyes and modern chemicals, to get interesting
results with it. There are two distinct and separate ways open to the
dyer for discharging, i.e., destroying his dyestuffs, whether they
are dyed on cloth, or whether, as is not infrequently the case with
amateurs, they are present as a stain on his hands and fingers. In
each case, however, care must be taken, as may easily be imagined, to
use such chemicals as will spare the materials, whether cotton and
linen, or nails and skin, while attacking the coloring matter.
(a) _Discharge by Oxidation. Chlorine Compounds, Bleaching Powder,
etc._—In the first place, chemists have long known that certain
chemicals, more particularly the powerful gaseous element known as
chlorine and certain of its compounds, have the power of permanently
destroying coloring matters by oxidizing or burning them.
At first this was done by using chlorine itself, or a water solution
of chlorine. Later, however, it was found that on passing chlorine
into some caustic alkali, like quicklime, or caustic soda, or caustic
potash, these would absorb immense quantities of chlorine which would
be again given out, as desired, on the addition of acid, or even,
though very slowly and gradually, by the action of the carbonic acid
gas in the air.
The lime compound, which contains more chlorine than the others, and
has the great advantage of being dry, has long been known as chloride
of lime or as bleaching powder, and has been, and is, commonly
used from one end of the world to the other as a quick, ready,
cheap source of chlorine either for bleaching or for disinfection.
The potash and soda compounds, known respectively as Labarraque’s
solution and Javelle water, are less active and powerful than
bleaching powder, but have the same general properties.
Over a hundred years ago, very soon after the discovery of the
bleaching properties of these compounds, chemists began to use them,
not only for decolorizing and whitening raw cotton and linen cloth,
but also for discharging the color in patterns from dyed goods. The
process was not a difficult one, and is used to this day to some
extent in the calico printing mills. The cloth is first dyed to
shade, fixed, and dried. The pattern is then printed on with a paste
containing some solid organic acid, like citric acid or tartaric
acid, dissolved in it. After drying, the printed cloth is passed
through a bath of bleaching powder in water, possibly with a little
weak alkali added, to be sure that no free chlorine is present;
and wherever the bleaching powder meets the acid the cloth is
decolorized, but the rest of the cloth comes out of the bath without
being much, if at all, altered in color. Of course, on coming out
of this bath the cloth must be thoroughly washed to get rid of any
traces of chloride of lime, which otherwise, on exposure to the air,
would play havoc with the rest of the colors.
This process worked very well with the old vegetable dyes, and,
every now and then, some craftsman, of an experimental turn of mind,
revives it for stencil work. The dyed cloth is stencilled with a
paste made of wheat flour boiled with a saturated solution of citric
acid, it is dried, and then passed through a bath of bleaching
powder in water, say two or three tablespoonfuls to the gallon. It
is generally best to stir in a few drops of a soda solution to the
bath, till all smell of chlorine has gone, or else the background may
be affected. The stencilled cloth is dipped in this bath, and kept
there for a few minutes, until the bleaching process is well under
way, and then taken out, and washed in hot soap and water, and rinsed
well.
_Advantages and Disadvantages of Bleaching Powder Discharge._—The
chief advantage of this process is that it is very cheap and the
materials can be bought at almost any grocery. The disadvantages are,
however, important. As long as it is confined to easily discharged,
comparatively fugitive, colors, it will destroy the color all right
in the stencilled parts, although the bleaching powder bath is apt
to attack the color in the body of the cloth, and the outlines of
the pattern are apt to be soft and irregular because of the escaping
chlorine, where the citric acid is acting.
When, however, very fast dyes are being used, as for instance, the
Vat colors or, indeed, a great many of the best dyes in all the
classes, the action of chlorine is very slow, and slight, and, in
order to really destroy the color both the acid and the bleaching
powder will often have to be so strong that the chlorine set free
will destroy the fibre as well. For the term “fastness to light”
implies, as a rule, fastness also to oxidation in general, and dyes
like the best modern ones which will let the cloth rot away from
under them, when long exposed to the weather without changing color,
are very apt also to keep their color, even when the cloth is _burnt_
away from under them by the action of chlorine.
Accordingly, this process is distinctly one that needs careful
experimentation before it is tried on any important piece of work.
There are plenty of dyestuffs among the Salt colors, and also among
the Sulphur colors, which discharge well with chlorine. And the
calico printer, working, as he generally does to this day, with
comparatively fugitive dyes, and weighing accurately both acid and
bleaching powder, can generally get good results with it. But there
is always the disadvantage, that the least excess of chlorine will
attack and tender the cloth, and the better the dyestuff, as a rule,
the stronger the oxidizing agent must be to discharge it.
(b) _Discharge by Reduction, Hydrosulphite, etc._—The wary craftsman
will find the process much less dangerous to the cloth, and not much
more difficult, if instead of trying to _oxidize_ the dyestuff, he
attempts to discharge it by _reducing_ it; or, in other words, if
instead of trying to burn it out, he tries to take the oxygen away
from it.
It so happens that in a vast majority of cases a dyestuff becomes
decolorized by reducing it, just as well as by oxidizing it. There
is, however, a difference. When the color is oxidized, it is burnt up
and destroyed forever. When it is reduced, however, it is, in many
cases, only decolorized and not destroyed; and on standing in the air
it is apt to take up oxygen again, and to regain some, at least, of
the original color. On the other hand, while any oxidation process is
liable to attack the cloth as well as the color, the reducing agents
now in use have no effect upon the materials, even when powerful
enough to act on the very fastest dyestuffs.
As before mentioned, the most satisfactory reducing agent at present
known to dyers is hydrosulphite of soda, and this can be incorporated
in a paste, and used for discharge stencilling. It is, however, as a
rule, more satisfactory to use the more expensive, but more permanent
hydrosulphite compound, described, in the last chapter, as acting
only when heated.
The reducing stencil paste can be easily made by mixing with some
“gum dragon” or flour paste, as much as it will hold of a saturated
solution of the “Stencil Salt.”
The student should experiment with the different dyes and classes of
dyes before attempting a serious piece of work; but in general, all
the Salt colors and the Acid colors will discharge readily with this
paste, and remain colorless. The Vat colors and the Sulphur colors
can also be reduced to colorless compounds, but it is not always
easy to wash them out of the cloth after the reduction, and, if they
remain in it, they are apt to regain their color, on standing in the
air.
The dyed cloth, carefully washed and pressed and dampened, is
stencilled with the above paste and allowed to dry. When dry it is
steamed, as described in the last chapter, and it will be noticed
that when a certain temperature is reached the color will be
discharged. As soon as possible afterwards the cloth is to be washed
in a hot soap bath to remove the reduced color compound (which, as
a rule, has little affinity for the cloth) and to get rid of the
paste. Then the cloth is dried and finished.
When trying this process with the Vat dyes it is best to soak the
cloth directly after steaming, and before soaping, in a warm bath
containing a little free caustic soda (remember this is apt to burn
the fingers) because the reduced colors of this class are not, as a
rule, soluble in water, and are apt to oxidize again in a soap bath.
_Results._—In following up these various experiments in our
laboratory we have not used this process in much as the Resist
stencilling, but there is no reason why it should not give just as
good results. Indeed, the craftsman will probably find, after a
little practice, that it is easier to get clear white patterns with
this than with the other. It has the disadvantage of requiring the
rather bothersome steaming process, which reduces its value for many
purposes. Still it will often be found that simply ironing the dried
stencilled cloth with a hot flatiron, with a damp cloth between, will
cause the reduction to take place quite satisfactorily.
The chief advantage of this process over the other is that, as the
dyeing is done before and not after the stencilling, it is possible
to get the exact shade of background required. While, in the resist
stencilling every minute, almost indeed every second that the
stencilled goods are left in the dye-bath, is liable to obscure
the pattern. And it is hard to get first-class results, as regards
fastness to rubbing and washing, and it is impossible to match
shades, when working so hurriedly.
Then, too, this discharge process permits the use of almost every
color on the list, while the resist process practically confines the
craftsman to the use of the Sulphur dyes only.
Those who are interested in this line of work are advised to try
these two processes upon silk, where very beautiful and interesting
effects can be produced with but little difficulty. The resist
process, using Sulphur colors, gives quiet soft tones on silk, fast
to the hardest kind of washing. But brighter shades, equally fast to
light, and fairly fast to washing, can be made with the discharge
process by using Salt colors.
For ordinary work the Acid dyes, of course, would be used, and these,
too, as a rule, discharge readily.
CHAPTER XVII
BATIK
The last and perhaps the most interesting and most important process
to which we shall call our reader’s attention is one which, after
being practised in the East for many centuries, has been brought
quite recently to the attention of European and American craftsmen.
The term “Batik” is a Javanese word, signifying painting in wax, and
the process, somewhat modified, is known to professional dyers and
calico-printers by the name of “wax resist.” When in the hands of a
trained draughtsman the process has a charm and character of its own,
which will warrant the interest now manifested in it, wherever it has
been introduced.
=History.=—Batik was first introduced by the Dutch discoverers of
Java, who, in 1648, sent home descriptions, with drawings, of the
wonderfully beautiful textiles worn by the people, especially by
the chiefs of that country. The art was known and practised in the
East long before that time, for in Madras goods were made, by a
combination of block printing and Batik, at least as early as the
fifteenth century. And in the interior of Java there are some famous
old ruins in which are found stone statues of Buddha, supposed to be
at least 1,200 or 1,300 years old, clothed in garments the same as
those used at the present day; and showing, from their decorations,
that they were ornamented by Batik in the same general style of
patterns that are still popular there.
During the last few years very careful studies have been made,
especially by the Dutch Government, upon this Javanese process, and
they have endeavored to introduce it into Europe. It was amusing to
notice that in one of the reports issued by the Dutch Government on
this subject it was stated that none of the modern dyestuffs could
be utilized for this purpose, and that the only colors that could
be recommended as fast to light were the old vegetable dyestuffs,
applied in the complicated and troublesome methods of past ages.
This curiously unscientific attitude has seriously interfered with
the success of the process in Western lands, and is only now being
abandoned.
=Javanese Practice.=—Detailed information about the history,
technique, and designs of the Javanese process has been set down in a
monumental work: “Die Batikkunst in Niederlandisch Indien,” published
in Harlem under the auspices of the Dutch Government in 1899.
Perhaps of more interest to the non-scientific reader is a short but
well-written account of “Battack Printing in Java,” read before the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society in 1906 by an English
chemist, John Allan, who spent several months among the natives,
studying the process at first-hand.
According to these authorities the Javanese and, indeed, most of
the natives of Malaysia, wear garments simple enough in style and
cut, but elaborately decorated with great variety of both color and
design. The principal garment, common to both men and women, is the
_sarong_, in shape not unlike a large and elongated bath towel,
which, according to the desire and sex of the owner, may be made to
serve as trousers or skirt, overcoat or blanket, and is the universal
bathing costume. It is made of calico, rarely homespun, almost always
imported from Lancashire or Holland, and as the natives, both men
and women, are exceedingly fond of bathing, the colors must be fast
enough to stand constant exposure to water as well as to the fierce
tropical sun.
They also wear head-dresses made from squares of calico, dyed with
square centres of plain color and elaborately decorated at the sides;
and _slendangs_, a kind of girdle or shawl, usually made of silk and
less elaborately decorated. The costume is completed, for full-dress
occasions, by a thin shirt or chemise and a light jacket.
For producing the designs on the sarongs, the process of wax resist
is almost always employed by the natives. Unfortunately of late years
the Javanese market has been flooded with an immense quantity of
cheap and, generally, neatly printed goods made in Manchester and in
Holland in rough imitation of the native styles. So it is not an easy
matter, nowadays, even in Java, to get genuine specimens of Batik
work. These can always be recognized, however, on careful examination
by the peculiar and characteristic odor and “feel” of the wax left
behind in the cloth, and, better, by the fine irregular “crackle”
formed in the dye-pot.
_Variations in the Process._—Although there are different methods,
the Batik process, as usually meant, is a means of dyeing in which,
before immersing the goods in the dye-pot, the patterns are carefully
drawn in molten beeswax, applied from a little copper cup with a
fine spout called a _tjanting_. Frequently, however, to save time,
the Javanese apply the wax by means of a metal die or block, made by
inserting thin strips of sheet brass in a wooden frame, so that the
edges of the brass form the desired pattern. These blocks, provided
with a handle covered with cloth, are first dipped into the molten
wax, and then the excess is removed by pressing against a pad, which
is kept warm by being near the fire of the melting pot. The pattern
is thus stamped onto the cloth instead of being poured onto it,
through a small spout, out of a cup.
This Batik process is sometimes used by native craftsmen in other
parts of the Far East. Plate I, for instance, shows a specimen of
East Indian work, part of a long piece of stout cotton bought, years
ago, at Liberty’s in London, with an elaborate design made with
molten wax, applied by brush or tjanting. Even in the plate the
characteristic ‘crackle’ shows plainly.
_Wax._—In Java, the wax used for pouring is a mixture of paraffin and
beeswax, or an impure wax imported from Japan for this purpose. For
stamping the patterns it is necessary to use a stiffer wax made from
rosin and paraffin, sometimes mixed with varnish gums.
_Dyes._—The principal colors used are indigo and a beautiful
golden-brown dye made from the bark of the mango tree. The
combination of these gives a black, so that the fine old sarongs
usually contain white, blue, brown, and black. Indigo is dyed first,
and, before dyeing, all the cloth, excepting that which is to come
out blue or black, is carefully covered with the wax. After the
indigo bath (the Javanese use a fermentation vat) the color is set
by oxidation. The old wax is then all washed off with boiling soap
and water, and after drying, the wax is again applied to all parts,
whether white or blue, which are not to receive the brown dye. The
latter is made from a strong, syrupy extract of bark, and is used
without mordanting, the color being set by exposure to air. As
the dyes must be used cold, to avoid melting and obliterating the
pattern, the goods are usually dipped in each dye-bath and exposed,
several times, before reaching the desired shade. After the final
dyeing, the wax is removed by a hot bath of wood ashes or soap, and
the garment is pressed out ready to wear.
When a red color is desired, the natives use a variation of the
old Turkey red process, dyeing with madder or munjeet upon cloth
mordanted with alum and oil. The wax in this case acts as a resist
against the alum mordant, which is applied cold, and thus prevents
the dyestuff, which is applied at the boil, from coloring the cloth
in the protected portions.
_Cloth._—The cloth used for this Batik process is strong common
calico, but, before beginning to wax it, they give it a careful
treatment, to improve both its texture and its ground color. For a
period of several days they alternately soak it in castor oil, wring
it out, boil out the oil with soda lye, and expose it to the blazing
sun; until finally it becomes soft and smooth, and has a pleasant tan
color which goes excellently with the brown, blue, and black dyes.
The peculiarity of all these Batik goods, whether from the East or
made at home or in Europe, is the characteristic “crackle” effect,
due to the breaking of the wax upon the cloth in the process of
dyeing, thereby admitting the color to the protected cloth in fine
lines and streaks. This distinguishes the wax resist work from the
previously described paste resist, which if desired will leave a
smooth, clean, white background, or if applied more lightly will give
backgrounds shaded more uniformly and without so many irregular lines
of color.
This crackle effect, so generally admired in the West, is often by
the Javanese considered a defect, and a sign of poor workmanship. It
can be largely, if not wholly, avoided by adding a large proportion
of rosin to the wax, by batiking the cloth on both sides, and by
dyeing the goods with as little crumpling as possible.
MODERN BATIK
The application of the artificial dyestuffs to this ancient process
has simplified it greatly, and has brought it within the scope of
craftsmen in general.
=Apparatus—Brushes.=—You will soon find that for a good deal of the
work, such as covering large surfaces with wax, or filling in large
and bold designs, a small-sized paint brush is all that is necessary.
The wax is melted in a cup or casserole, and painted on the cloth
wherever the design calls for it. It will be found, however, no easy
matter to get sharp and clear outlines in this way, and intricate or
delicate patterns cannot be worked out by the brush only. When the
wax is hot, it is hard to prevent it from spreading and running too
far over the cloth, and, on the other hand, it cools so rapidly on
the brush that, unless applied at once, it is hard to spread it at
all, and the wax is liable not to stick to the cloth.
Much is saved both in time and in accuracy and clearness of outline,
by using the brush in combination with the tjanting, drawing the
outlines with the latter, and filling in with the brush.
When large surfaces have been covered with the wax, and the
characteristic “crackle” effect is desired, it is often well to cool
the goods, by placing them in the ice box or out of doors for a few
minutes, and then to crumple them in the hands, before dyeing them.
The composition of the wax, also, has much to do with this part of
the work, as will be explained later.
The brush can also be employed for painting molten wax on to the
goods through a stencil, in resist stencil work. This, however, is
not satisfactory, even with metallic stencils, and fails completely
with paper stencils, because the wax, on cooling, fastens stencil
and cloth together so that they cannot be separated without injury.
It is much better practice, where a stencil design is to be worked
with wax resist, to make an outline of the design on the goods with a
sharp pencil, and then, removing the stencil, to fill in the pattern
with tjanting and brush. This same practice of drawing the outline on
the goods with pencil, or tracing paper, or by transferring from a
charcoal drawing, by rubbing, is always to be recommended: except for
those craftsmen who are such thoroughly trained draughtsmen that they
can draw their designs free-hand, with the tjanting, without danger
of slip or mistake. A pencil or crayon line, if not quite true,
can be erased without spoiling the whole design, but it is quite a
troublesome matter to correct a mistake made in molten wax.
=Tjantings.=—The real interest in this Batik process lies in the use
of some form of pouring instrument by which the molten wax can be
applied to the material in a fine stream, with much the same freedom
that a drawing can be made with soft pencil or crayon. This practice
has been developed in Java to its fullest extent, and a fine sarong,
containing two or three yards of calico, will be completely covered,
from one end to the other, with wonderfully intricate and elaborate
designs in two or three colors, all produced, perfectly free-hand, by
curious little tjantings, in the light fingers of the little Javanese
women.
[Illustration: FIG. 20—“TEAPOT” MODEL OF TJANTING]
[Illustration: FIG. 21—WALTHER GLASS TJANTING]
[Illustration: FIG. 22—“WAX PENCIL” MODEL OF TJANTING]
_Teapots._—When we began experimenting with Batik, in our laboratory,
we had no model of the Javanese tools to work with, and, from the
drawings, we could not see how they could be used without constant
dripping. So we designed a little brass apparatus, which we and our
friends nicknamed a “teapot,” which, with some modification, is shown
in Fig. 20, in which the molten wax remains in the cup until it is
poured out. This, with practice, works fairly well, and some very
interesting work has been done with it.
It is hard, however, to draw with it on a horizontal surface, such as
we are accustomed to work on. And to follow Javanese practice, and
have the cloth hanging over a frame, and to press it out with the
left hand while the wax is applied with the instrument in the right,
is oftentimes a nuisance.
_The Walther Glass Tjanting._—It is evident that we were not alone in
our fear of the Javanese models with spouts at the bottom, because,
in Germany, Dr. C. Walther of Crefeld has designed and introduced a
glass tjanting, shown in Fig. 21, which also delivers only on tipping
the instrument forward. This we have experimented with but without
much success. For we have found it difficult and awkward to draw with
it on a horizontal surface, and also, being made of glass, while it
is cheaper than the metal models, it is at the same time more fragile.
_Wax Pencil._—An entirely new idea has recently been applied to the
art of Batik by the introduction of a (patented) “wax pencil” (see
Fig. 22), made on the principle of the early stylographic pens.
This tool is made of heavy brass, with a removable wooden holder, and
the wax, in cylinders, is shoved into it from the top after removing
a cap. To melt the wax the wooden holder is slipped off, and the
pencil is heated over a flame or on a hot electric plate, while the
liquid wax is prevented from flowing out by a “needle valve” held
in place by a small spiral spring. To use the tool, the holder is
slipped over the pencil, taking care not to burn the fingers in so
doing, and the pattern is traced in just the same way that it would
be in ink, pressure on the projecting needle, by raising the valve,
permitting a greater or lesser flow of wax.
These instruments are certainly more convenient to draw with than any
of the forms previously mentioned, and, on hard smooth surfaces, such
as leather, wood, bone, metal, etc., are satisfactory enough. But it
is no easy matter to make them so that they will work well. For the
valve which regulates the flow of wax works with a spiral spring.
Now, if this spring is, or becomes, lax, the wax drips incessantly.
If on the other hand it is too stiff, it is quite troublesome to
press down the pin, at the tip, just hard enough to deliver a fine
stream, without opening it too wide.
In our experience these instruments, which are quite expensive, do
not work well with cloth and, especially, with rough weaves of cloth,
like crash, scrim, pongee, coarse calico, and the like. For the pin
is liable to catch and jump on the threads, and then it delivers the
wax very unevenly.
[Illustration: FIG. 23—JAVANESE TJANTINGS]
[Illustration: FIG. 24—AMERICAN MODIFICATION OF JAVANESE TJANTING]
_The Javanese Tjanting._—After much experimenting one of our friends
finally brought us, from Holland, a real tjanting copied directly
from the Javanese, and five minutes’ practice with it satisfied us
that it was superior to any of the “improved” models that we had
been working with. Since then we have seen, and studied, several
different styles of Javanese tjantings, and have learned how they
must be used to get the best results.
The secret of these instruments is two-fold. First, the size of the
delivery tube, and second, the temperature of the wax.
The genuine Javanese tjanting (see Fig. 23) is a little bit of a
tool, holding only about 15 or 20 cubic centimeters of wax, made of
very thin hammered copper, and fastened into a little bamboo handle,
some four or five inches long. At the lowest part of the cup, which
is drawn out at that point into a spout, is fastened the delivery
tube, which is of _exceedingly_ small calibre, what chemists would
call, in fact, a “capillary” tube. It will be noticed that the wooden
handle extends forward, under the bowl, making it impossible to heat
the bowl itself, or melt the wax in it, by a direct flame.
The wax is melted in a separate pot or large cup, and kept at a high
temperature throughout; and the operator scoops out the wax from this
pot with the bowl of the tjanting, wipes off the drip with a rag, and
then proceeds to draw on the cloth. In Java, or wherever the cloth is
kept upright, by hanging from a frame, the drip from the outside of
the cup and the end of the handle is not so important, for it will
fall in front of the cloth. When, however, the cloth is laid flat,
for drawing, it is of the utmost importance to avoid all unnecessary
dripping, and so it is probably advisable to ladle the wax from the
pot into the tjanting, with a small casserole or ladle, rather than
to dip it out directly.
Now, if the size of the delivery hole is right, and the wax is
neither too hot nor too cold, it will form a little globule on the
end of the tube, and stay there; and when this drop is wiped off and
the tube at once applied to the cloth or other material, the wax
will flow out in a fine thin stream, as long as it is drawn along
in contact with the cloth, and when lifted up it will stop flowing
until again applied to it. If the wax is too hot, so that it runs too
freely, it is easy to cool it to the proper temperature by blowing on
it. If it is too cool, so that it begins to chill in the tube, and
to flow slowly and unevenly, it must be warmed by being again dipped
into the hot wax for a new supply. Great pains must be taken to
have the wax free from dust or grit, or else the delivery tube will
be constantly stopping up. A fine but stiff bristle or a very thin
whisk of broom corn should be always on hand for cleaning the tube.
And after using the tjanting pains must be taken to clean out all
the wax thoroughly before laying it aside, so that the tube will be
clear for the melted wax, when it is next filled. The whole tjanting,
tube and cup, should be gently warmed before filling, for fear of
the wax chilling in the capillary tube before it can be applied. But
the arrangement of the handle is such as to call for the use of an
outside melting pot for the wax, while the small size of the cup is
evidently so that the melted wax can be all poured out before it has
time to chill.
_Modification of the Javanese Tjanting._—We have with much trouble
had some tjantings made here (see Fig. 24), following closely the
Javanese principles, which have proved extremely satisfactory. The
delivery tube is equally fine, and the general action is the same.
But the cup has been made somewhat larger, and very considerably
heavier, so that it will hold more wax, and will hold the heat
better. While, for economy’s sake, instead of hammered copper, the
cup is made of spun brass, and the wooden handle is attached to its
side, and not to the bottom of it. This enables the worker to heat
the cup directly over the alcohol lamp, without danger of scorching
the handle. Of course, when this is done carelessly, it is liable to
char some of the wax in and near the tube, and so to cause stoppages.
And also, it is hard to draw a series of fine lines of exactly
the same thickness, unless the wax in the tjanting is always of
practically the same temperature.
But there is no difficulty in filling these modified tjantings, just
as the Javanese do, by scooping up the melted wax from a pot, or by
pouring the melted wax into them from a casserole or ladle. While, in
case the wax gets chilled in the tjanting, it is very convenient to
be able to warm the cup quickly over a low clean flame, or by setting
it upon the corner of a hot plate.
=Composition of the Wax.=—As a general rule we have found that
ordinary unrefined beeswax, carefully melted and strained, or
poured off, free from dust and sediment, is fairly satisfactory.
It is, however, pretty expensive, and so can be replaced, without
disadvantage, by the cheaper mineral wax, known in a crude state as
_Ozocerite_, and in its refined form, which alone should be employed,
as _Ceresine_. To make the wax more brittle, and thus to improve the
“crackle,” it is well to add more or less paraffin. And it is well,
too, to add considerable rosin, to make the wax adhere better to the
goods, and not be so liable to rub or peel off. On the Continent, it
is customary to use Japanese vegetable wax instead of beeswax, but we
have not found this to be advantageous.
Where economy is desirable, or where it is hard to replace supplies,
it is well to save the once used wax and use it over again, by
extracting the wax from the goods, after dyeing, with boiling water,
and then, when this cools, collecting the wax as a cake floating on
the top.
=Dyeing Batiked Goods.=—In Holland and, to some extent, elsewhere
on the Continent, where this process has been introduced, great
stress has been laid upon the importance of using the old vegetable
colors of the Javanese, along with their tjantings. It is hardly
necessary to tell my readers that this practice is both unscientific
and, in a true sense, uncraftsmanlike. The object of any intelligent
craftsworker should be to produce beautiful and interesting and
characteristic results in the most durable and effective manner
possible, with the minimum expenditure of energy upon the mechanical,
as opposed to the artistic, details. Why, after carefully batiking a
good design on a piece of silk or calico, must the craftsman spend
hour after hour of valuable time in some tedious, complicated,
and expensive dyeing process, simply because “That is the way they
do things in Java,” especially when, by using modern dyestuffs, he
can get results quite as beautiful and far more permanent, in a few
minutes’ time, and with far less danger of spoiling his work. Even
the clever and skilful little Javanese could learn something from
modern dyeing chemists.
The class of dyestuffs to use depends, of course, on the kind of
materials that are being worked on. One of the great charms of this
process is that it can be applied to all sorts and kinds of textiles
and, indeed, of a host of things never included under that name.
Batik can be applied to cotton, linen, wool, silk, and other woven
goods. It can also, if desired, be used upon basketry. And charming
effects can be produced, by its aid, upon leather, pasteboard,
parchment, vellum, and other bookbinding materials, as well as upon
wood, bone, or indeed anything that possesses a smooth surface, and
will hold a dyestuff.
On copper, brass, and other metals it can also be used, not, indeed,
for dyeing, but for etching, with acids and other chemicals, with
great success.
(a) _Calico and Linen._—There is no doubt that for vegetable
fabrics in general Batik is very well fitted, especially since the
introduction of modern dyes, which are applied in a cold bath and are
set by oxidation. The Sulphur dyes work extremely well, in cold or
lukewarm baths, especially if used in a strong dye-bath. But they, it
will be remembered, are not very bright colors, and are very short
on the red side. For soft, quiet colorings, however, extremely fast
to washing, and quite fast to light, which can be applied easily and
readily, they will be found very useful.
But the fastest colors known, both for light and for washing, are
the modern Vat colors, many of which, once reduced, will dye in a
lukewarm or even a cold dye-bath. While indigo, the type of these
colors, and still most useful, gives a soft rather greyish shade of
blue, more effective by itself than when mixed, there can be found
among the Helindones, Thio indigoes, and the rest, a full palette
of dyes which, properly mixed, will furnish any shade that may be
desired.
The dyeing directions for batiked goods are the same as for ordinary
calico. The materials, well wetted, are immersed, drained, wrung,
and oxidized as usual. The wax is usually removed in one or more
boiling soap baths, which help as well to set the color and to remove
unattached dyestuff.
(b) _Silk._—Silk, as in other processes, can be dyed in several
different ways, according to the fastness to light and washing
desired.
The easiest way, especially when trying to match shades, is to dye,
with the Acid dyes, in a soap bath acidified with a little sulphuric,
or, preferably, with acetic acid. These shades, however, while
brilliant and fast to light, are not at all fast to washing, and so
the wax must be removed later, with benzine or gasoline, and not with
a hot soap bath.
The sulphur dyes, with a little glucose in the bath, and plenty of
dyestuff, will give extremely fast colors on silk, but in most
cases these shades will be too dull for proper effect. They can be
greatly improved in color, though with some sacrifice of fastness, by
topping them, without removing the wax, in a cold bath of Basic dyes,
dissolved with a little acetic acid.
For extremely fast colors the Vat dyes can be used. Easier to apply,
especially for rather light shades, are some of the Salt colors
which, though they do not take as well on silk, in the cold, as
they do on cotton will, nevertheless, color it well, with prolonged
immersion, in a strong bath, in the presence of formic acid, and once
on, will stand a very considerable amount of washing.
(c) _Wool._—In case it is necessary to apply this process to wool,
the latter will probably be dyed in the cold with Acid dyes, in
the presence of some sodium sulphate (Glauber’s salt) and dilute
sulphuric acid.
To make this color faster to washing, steaming, and the like, it is
best, after dyeing, drying, and removing the wax with benzine, to
boil the dyed goods for half an hour or more in a bath containing a
little Glauber’s salt and dilute sulphuric acid, but no dyestuff.
(d) _Leather._—As a rule, the Batiked leather should be dyed with
Acid colors, acidified with acetic or formic acid, though they can be
shaded afterwards, if desired, by staining with Basic colors.
After dyeing, the wax can be removed by benzine or, softened
carefully by the cautious approach of a hot iron, can be incorporated
with the polishing wax, used for rubbing down and finishing the
surface.
(e) _Wood._—Batiked wood can be stained by soaking it in, or by
brushing it with, a solution of an acid color, acidified with a
little acetic acid. These dyes are more soluble than most of the
other classes, and hence soak into and penetrate the fibres better.
They may bleed, however, if exposed to warm water.
The Basic colors or even the Salt colors can be used, but, while they
are apt to adhere more firmly, they do not soak in as well.
The wax is either used for polishing, or is removed by benzine.
(f) _Baskets._—Basketry can be decorated by Batik, although it is but
rarely done. The baskets would be dyed with Basic colors and acetic
acid, excepting where yellows and reds were needed, fast to light, in
which case the Acid colors would be used.
(g) _Bone._—Very pretty effects can be produced with Batik upon
polished surface of bone or ivory. These are dyed carefully with Acid
colors in a bath containing acetic acid.
This process is a combination of dyeing and etching, for the acid
attacks the exposed surfaces, removing the polish and opening the way
for the action of the dyestuff later.
=Batik Used for Etching.=—The talents of Batik are numerous, for the
usefulness of the Batik tjanting and brush are not confined to the
dyer, but can be readily availed of by any metal or wood worker who
happens to be a skilled draughtsman as well. Wax is a good resist,
not only against dyes and the weak chemicals used in connection with
them, but also against many of the most powerful reagents known to
the chemist, such as sulphuric acid, for instance, or strong caustic
alkali.
Accordingly, if a piece of smooth wood is carefully batiked and
then, instead of being painted with dyestuff in solution, it has
some strong sulphuric acid, or a concentrated solution of caustic
potash poured and spread upon it, in a few minutes, after the reagent
is washed off and the wax removed with gasoline or otherwise, the
exposed surfaces of the wood will be found softened and corroded,
so that on scrubbing with a stiff brush, they can be readily rubbed
away, and the waxed portions will stand out in relief.
Metal work, like copper or brass plates and dishes, can be etched
readily in the same way, the pattern of the relief being drawn in
wax, and the metal exposed for a greater or less time to the action
of dilute nitric acid.
Without going further into details it is hoped that enough has been
stated here to impress on the student the possibilities of this
beautiful process in a large number of different directions.
CHAPTER XVIII
THE INFLUENCE OF THE WAR UPON THE DYESTUFF INDUSTRY
In Chapter II of this book it has been explained how the dyeing
industry of the whole world was changed by the discovery and
commercial preparation of the first aniline dyestuff, mauveine,
in 1856, by the English chemist Perkin. Under his leadership the
supremacy in this new industry was kept in England; but when he
retired from the field the manufacture of dyestuffs was soon
concentrated in Germany. For over forty years before the beginning of
the Great War, the Germans had almost complete and absolute control
over the whole color business, including many allied industries like
the manufacture of organic chemicals, drugs, perfumes, flavoring
matters and the like, derived originally from coal tar. In Germany
were four or five great and splendidly equipped factories, and some
ten or fifteen others of less importance, all thoroughly organized
and working together most harmoniously under what would, in the
United States, be called a most perfect specimen of a Trust. Opposed
to them all over the world there could be found but a handful of
comparatively small and unimportant firms in Switzerland, France,
England and the United States—producing altogether not over about
ten per cent of the output of their German competitors.
Compared to other industries the output of dyestuffs needed for
the whole world’s consumption is not a very large one—some sixty
or seventy million dollars a year all told; and it was freely
boasted, and more or less accepted by the rest of the world, that
“the dyestuff industry is a one-nation industry, and that nation is
Germany!”
=Rise of the German Dyestuff Monopoly.=—The story of how this came
about was once told the writer by Sir William Perkin, when he was in
New York, in 1896, at the time of the “Coal Tar Color Jubilee,” the
fiftieth anniversary of his famous discovery.
He said that in the early days, when he was running his plant near
Manchester, the most dangerous competitors he had to face were
the French. He described them as excellent chemists and keen, but
fair-fighting business men; and the Germans, in those days, were far
inferior to them in every way—in ability, in originality, and, above
all, in honesty.
He went so far as to say that, for years before he left the business,
he and other English chemists had entirely abandoned attempts to
patent their discoveries in Berlin. He had found, by sad experience,
that whenever he sent over an application for a patent on a new
dyestuff, or new chemical compound of importance, the German Patent
Office would at once call in, for consultation, the leading German
chemists who were interested in that line of work. He would get
request after request for more and more detailed information about
every part of the process; and then, when they had got from him
every bit of information that they could, they would grant the
patent to some one of his German competitors, who, in many cases at
least, had never even dreamed of the thing, until Perkin had sent
his application to Berlin. In fact, he said the English and French
chemists considered them as rank, bare-faced pirates, and none too
successful pirates at that.
Two Germans however, in 1869, did work out the composition of
alizarine, the dyestuff of madder, and published their discovery in
the chemical journals. But while they discovered and patented one
method for preparing this Alizarine from coal tar on a commercial
scale, Perkin in England, and some dyestuff chemists in France
discovered other methods equally good or perhaps better for producing
the same identical color at less expense. So they still kept well
ahead of the Germans even in that.
Soon after this, in 1870, the Franco-Prussian war broke out. At
once the French and German factories closed, at any rate for any
foreign trade, and as the cultivation of madder had by that time
been abandoned, Perkin found that all the Turkey red for the whole
Eastern market must be dyed with his Manchester alizarine. Orders
came pouring in, and in order to keep up with the demand, it would be
necessary for him to greatly increase the size of his plant, and to
put back into it all his savings of the past fourteen or fifteen very
profitable years.
This, he told me, he was unwilling to do. But, just at that moment,
he was approached by a firm of Manchester business men, who had been
supplying his works with some of the raw materials from coal tar
(crudes and intermediates as they call them now), with an offer to
buy his works and his interest in the business. He was perfectly
frank and open with them, showed them his books, his profits for
the past few years, his present orders and the rest, and after a
little bargaining he sold out to them for a very fair price, which he
immediately invested in the best of securities and on which he lived
in comfort for the rest of his long and extremely happy life.
=Ruin of the English Dyestuff Industry.=—As soon as they had gained
possession of his factory, the Manchester people began to pass word
around among their friends, that they were going to show the whole
world how to run a chemical industry. Perkin, they agreed, was
indeed a clever fellow in his way, and undoubtedly a good chemist,
but he was no _business_ man. They were going to run those works on
good, practical, common-sense business lines, and they and their few
friends whom they allowed to join them, boasted loudly and deeply
of their expected profits. Their motto was the well-established one
“Manufacture cheap and sell dear”—and they proceeded to follow it
implicitly.
They went over all the details of the business with the greatest
care, and soon found what seemed to them a willful piece of
extravagance. Perkin himself, and three or four other chemists, were
drawing salaries, not for the actual making of the dyestuffs but for
_experimental_ purposes, and they had quite an expensive laboratory
used for that purpose alone!
Of course this was at once eliminated—and great was their
satisfaction when they found that they had thereby cut down the price
of making their dyes two or three cents a pound.
Then it came to the “selling dear” part of it. Perkin told me that
the last few years that he ran his factory, he kept the price of his
dyestuffs at a reasonable figure, so that, indeed, he would get a
good profit from them, but that, on the other hand, it would be no
easy matter for competitors to break into his field with success. His
alizarine, in particular, he had kept at a price just below what it
would pay to grow madder in opposition to it, and he had not raised
the price to any great extent since the war had given him a monopoly.
These Manchester people, however, fully recognized that they were the
only manufacturers of alizarine, anywhere, and were over-flooded with
orders—so they instantly jumped up the price of their alizarine to
four or five times its former figures.
Barely had they completed their “business” reorganization of the
plant when the war came to an end, and the Germans marched back to
their own country, with “five milliards” of French money, full of
self-confidence (to use a very mild term) and looking around for new
fields to conquer in peace, now that they had won all that they could
at that time by war. Instantly every German with any knowledge of
the textile or dyestuff industries turned his eyes at once in that
direction. “What! Alizarine at five dollars a pound instead of a
dollar; why, any fool can make a profit on colors at that price!” And
immediately, in different parts of the country, factory after factory
was started, each one centered around some first-class chemist, of
national if not international reputation, with instructions to gather
around himself a staff of the most brilliant and best trained organic
chemists he could find, to be used first of all in experimental and
investigating work as well as for the mere preparation of dyestuffs.
As a result, in a very short time, these new German firms were
supplying alizarine and other dyestuffs to the Manchester Turkey red
manufacturers at lower prices than they could be made for in Perkin’s
old factory in the immediate neighborhood; and, before the end of the
year, those clever business men were complaining bitterly to Perkin
that he had cheated them in the sale of his works, and were wanting
him to give them their money back, which, as the old gentleman told
me with a chuckle, he very positively and decidedly refused to do.
From that time until the beginning of the Great War the great English
textile industry, with its enormous trade all over the world, was
obliged to buy practically all its dyestuffs from Germany.
=Dyestuff Industry in the United States.=—The manufacture of
dyestuffs in this country was a little better than in England,
because of the tariff protection granted it by the Government for
many years. Four or five factories of very moderate size kept up a
rather precarious existence, because their chief raw materials, the
so-called “intermediates,” organic chemicals made from coal tar and
from which the principal products, dyes, drugs, perfumes and the like
are made in turn, all had to be imported from Europe, and, in most
cases, from their German rivals who naturally kept a tight rein upon
the quantity and quality of their output.
In 1913 even this industry was destroyed by the abolition of the
duties on dyestuffs in the new tariff, thanks to the pressure for
free raw materials brought by the great textile industries, probably
at the instigation of the foreign color houses.
=Changed Conditions Due to the War.=—Since 1914 this whole situation
has been radically and completely changed all over the world.
Appreciating the great danger to their textile trades from the lack
of dyestuffs, and also the vast military importance of a large and
highly developed coal tar products industry, for the manufacture of
high explosives, smokeless powder and the like, nation after nation
has given government assistance not only in the line of money,
but also with patent legislation and new tariff. England with its
British Dye Works, Ltd., France with the St. Denis Works, now greatly
enlarged and strengthened, Italy, Japan, all have made arrangements
for supplying their trade with home-made dyestuffs, of excellent
quality, not only during but after the temporary disturbance due to
the actual fighting.
In the United States there soon were made many more or less
independent and spasmodic efforts to supply at least the principal
and most generally used colors, notably the Basic dyes, Methylene
Blue, Methyl Violet and the like, so much used in calico printing,
silk and wool dyeing, leather and other lines, and the simpler
Sulphur colors, like Sulphur Black, Blues, and Browns. These were
selling, before the end of 1914, at comparatively huge prices, and
until the peace will probably still command from five to ten times
their usual values.
But out of these scores of generally quite small and isolated
factories, there have sprung, by the fourth year of hostilities, a
few large, well equipped and fully financed organizations which will
be able, within a very short time, indeed probably before these lines
appear in print, to fully provide this country with the main standard
dyes, quite as good in every respect as the same dyes made by the
best German color houses. And, unless very adverse tariff legislation
should be introduced, they should be in a position, after the close
of the war, to hold their trade against any foreign competition.
It will, of course, take several years before they can supply in
this country the very finest special dyestuffs, of which but small
quantities are ever needed or used, and which in most cases are fully
protected by patents, as well as by secret methods of manufacture.
But, with the exception of the vat colors, of which artificial Indigo
and the closely allied Brom-indigo are at present the only ones made
in this country, the dyeing trade will be, in a short time, well
supplied with excellent standard colors “made in America.”
The three important American dyestuff houses already started with
the addresses of their New York offices are as follows:—
_American_—American Aniline Products. Inc.,
80 Fifth Avenue.
_Marden_—Marden, Orth and Hastings,
61 Broadway.
_National_—National Aniline and Chemical Co.,
244 Madison Avenue.
And also, soon to engage in the manufacture of dyestuffs on a large
scale:—
The Dupont de Nemours Chemical Co.,
of Wilmington, Del.
Lists of the Best Dyestuffs, in the Different Classes, Made Thus Far
by the American Manufacturers
At the present moment, November, 1917, but few of the home-made
colors are as fast to light as the specially selected dyes of the
great German houses, listed on pages 66, 89, 103 and 127. Those in
the following lists are the best made at present, in the United
States, and will be steadily improved upon as time goes on.
_Direct Cotton or Salt Dyes._—
American—Benzo Fast Yellow, A
Direct Sky Blue
Marden— Stilbene Yellow
Direct Blue
Direct Brown
National—Delta Red, 2 B
Niagara Fast Yellow, F
Niagara Blue, 2 B
Erie Black, G X OO
_Sulphur Colors._—
Marden— Sulphur Black
Sulphur Brown
National—Sulphur Brown, W F
Sulphur Yellow, B W
Sulphur Direct Navy Blue
Sulphur Black, F conc.
_Vat Colors._—
Dibrom Indigo, powder and paste
Synthetic Indigo, 20% paste
_Made by the Dow Chemical Company of Midland, Michigan. New York
Agents, Geisenheimer & Co., 134 Cedar Street._
Synthetic Indigo and Sodium hydrosulphite can also be obtained from
_Klipstein, 634 Greenwich Street, New York_.
_Basic Colors._—
Many of these such as Methylene Blue, Methyl Violet, Phosphine,
Bismarck Brown and others, including leather Black, are being made by
_American_, _Marden_ and _National_, as well as by many firms that so
far have not gone into the general color business. One of the most
important of these last, who, besides the above, make a brilliant
basic Green, called by them Methylene Green, is the _Meth-O-Lene Co.,
Inc., 81-83 Fulton Street, New York_.
Auramine, at present, can best be obtained from _Klipstein_.
Nigrosine soluble in water, in jet black and bluish shades, is made
by _Marden_, _Meth-O-Lene_ and other firms, and is largely used for
dyeing leather fast brilliant shades of black.
_Acid Colors._—
American—Fast Yellow, H Ex.
Brilliant Blue, conc.
Cloth Red, H
Acid Black, L conc.
Marden— Metanril Yellow
Orange, No. 2
Fast Acid Red
Croceine Scarlet
National—Azo Yellow, A S W
Scarlet, B R
Acid Black, 4 A B
Also Tartrazine, a fast acid yellow much used for wool, not for silk.
SPECIAL NOTE
Further information concerning dyestuffs, apparatus, textiles,
chemicals, etc., connected with this work, may be obtained on
writing to the author at 7 West 43rd Street, New York.
INDEX
There is no mention either of the Plate illustrations or of the
Figure illustrations in the index; these may be found in a list of
the illustrations in the front of the book.
Acid Azo Colors, 123, 124
Acid Colors, 52, 54, 123-131, 131-136, 148-150, 152, 165-168, 219,
258
After-treatment, 18, 67, 68, 89
Alizarine and Alizarine Dyestuffs, 22, 23, 42
Alizarine Assistant or Turkey Red Oil, 88, 106, 232
Aniline, 40, 41
Aniline Black—for Stencilling, 224-228
Aniline Colors, 109. Also see Basic Colors
Aniline Red or Fuchsine, Magenta, 40, 109
Animal Dyes, 11-14.
Also see Cochineal, Kermes, Lac, Tyrian purple
Artificial Silk, 39, 87, 112, 181, 184-192
Artificial or Synthetic Indigo, 92, 93
Bagobo Tied Work, 196, 199, 200, 202, 206
Basic Colors, 52, 54, 108-123, 148-153, 220-223, 258
Basketry, Dyeing of, 113, 114, 116-123, 258
Batik or Wax Resist, 241-260
Benedict, Miss Laura (Tied Work from Philippines), 199, 200, 206
Bismarck Brown, 109, 115, 124
Bistre or Permanganate Bronze, 32-35
Black Dyeing—with Coal-Tar Colors, 69, 86, 89, 114, 168, 169
Black Dyeing—with Logwood, 21, 138, 169-172
Black Stencilling, 224-228
Bleaching Powder, 208-211, 234-236
Boiled-off Liquor, 161, 162, 164, 168, 174
Bone-colored by Batik Process, 258
British uniforms, dyed with cochineal, 19
Bronze on Leather, 153-155
Bronze (Permanganate) or Bistre, 32-35
Brown (Bismarck), 109, 115, 124
Brown, dyed with Permanganate of Potash, 32-35
Cachou de Laval, 85
Catechu. See Cutch
Chardonnet Silk, 184, 185, 189
Chloride of Lime. See Bleaching Powder
Chrome Orange, 32
Chrome Yellow, 32
Chrome Tanning, 144
Chundries or Chunaries (Indian Tied Work), 196-199
Classification of Coal-Tar Colors, for Craftsmen, 51, 52
Cochineal, 11, 18, 19
Congo Red, 55, 56, 57
Cordovan Leather, 142
Cotton Colors. See Salt Colors
Cotton Dyeing, 59-64, 86, 88-90, 98, 99
“Covering,” 83
Crackle Effect—in Batik, 244, 246, 247
Cutch, 18, 85, 146, 171
Direct Coloring, 193
Direct Cotton Dyeing. See Salt Colors and Sulphur Colors. Also 17,
53, 55, 85
Discharge Stencilling, 233-241
Discharge work, 193, 208-211
Discovery of Acid Colors, 123, 124;
Aniline or Coal-Tar Colors, 40, 41, 46;
Basic Colors, 108, 109;
Indigo, 9, 10, 91, 92;
Salt Colors, 55, 56;
Sulphur Colors, 85, 86;
Vat Colors, modern, 103
Discovery (Perkin’s), 40, 41, 46, 54, 108, 109
Dyeing Directions—for Acid Colors, 127-131, 132-137, 148-153, 162,
163;
Artificial Silk, 187, 189, 190;
Basic Colors, 117-123, 148-150;
Basketry, 117-123;
Batik, 254-258;
Cotton and Linen, 27, 30, 33, 59-64, 87-89, 98, 99, 105-108;
Feathers, 132-137;
Imitation Silk, 183;
Indigo, 98, 99;
Iron Buff (Iron Rust), 27-29;
Iron Grey, 30;
Leather, 148-150;
Permanganate Bronze, 33;
Raffia, 120-123;
Resist Stencilling, 232;
Salt Colors, 59-64, 175, 176, 233;
Silk, 162-165, 174-181, 207;
Straw, 117-120;
Sulphur Colors, 87-89, 180, 207, 232;
Tied and Dyed Work, 206, 207;
Vat Colors, 105-108, 177-181;
Wild Silk, 164, 165;
Wool, 24, 127-131
Eastern Dyes, 10, 13, 17-21, 22, 199, 200, 245
Elberfeld Silk, 185, 189
Embroidery-fast Silk, 175-181
Equipment needed for Dyeing, 35-39
Fastness to Light, 42, 49, 63-66, 89, 100, 102, 103, 112, 114, 126,
153
Fastness to Washing, 64-67, 89, 100, 103, 124, 137, 174-181
Feathers and Feather-dyeing, 39, 131-141
Fermentation Method of Vat dyeing, 94
Finishing—Artificial Silk, 39, 189, 190;
Feathers, 39, 134, 135;
Leather, 153;
Silk, 39, 163, 164
Fustic, 20
Gambier, 146, 171
Gelatin or Glue, used as Reagent, 87
Glanzstoff (Elberfeld Silk), 185, 189
Glucose, 33, 87, 179
Grain Colors (Cochineal, Kermes, Lac), 11, 12, 19
Grey, Miss Mary—Tied Work, 203
Grey, from mixture of colors, 72, 73, 82, 83
Grey, from Iron Salts and Tannin, 29, 31
Heating devices, used in Dyeing, 36
History. See Discovery.
Also Ancient Dyestuffs, 8-16;
Artificial Silk, 184-187;
Batik, 241-245;
Dyes of our Ancestors, 17-24;
Imitation Silk, 182, 183;
Leather, 141-144;
Silk, 156, 157;
Stencils and Stencilling, 211, 212;
Tied and Dyed Work, 192-200
Horses, dyed Brown with Permanganate, 34
Hydrosulphite of Sodium, 35, 97, 98, 104, 105, 118, 209, 210, 237-241
Imitation Silk, 181-184
Indian Dyes, 17, 18, 199
Indian Tied and Dyed Work, 196-199, 202, 206
Indigo and Vat Colors, 9, 10, 14, 91-108, 222-225
Indigo, Application of, 93, 98-100
Introduction, 5-8
Iron Buff (Iron Rust), 25-29, 103
Iron Grey, 29-31
Japanese Practice, 31, 211-219, 228-231
Javanese Practice (Batik), 242-256
Kermes, 12
Khaki, 28
Lac Dye, 11, 19, 20
Leather, 141-156;
Dyeing and Staining of, 111, 148-153;
Finishing of, 153;
History of, 141-144;
Preparation of, 143-148;
Stencilling of, 219
Linen—Dyeing of. See Cotton Dyeing, 59-64, 86, 88-90, 98, 99
Local Dyeing Formulæ, 24
Logwood, 21, 138, 169-172
Madder, 10
Manufacturers of Coal-Tar Colors, 48
Matching Shades, 77, 78, 101
Matching Shades by Night, 84
Mauvine (Perkin’s Violet), 40, 41, 108, 109
Metal, Etching of by Batik Process, 259
Methyl Violet. See Basic Colors, also 49, 108
Methylene Blue. See Basic Colors, also 109, 112, 114, 149
Mineral Dyes, 25-35
Mixed Shades, with Diagram, 78-84
Modern and Ancient Dyestuffs, compared, 5, 6
Mordants and Mordanting, 11, 18-25, 53, 55, 110
Murex Brandaris (Tyrian Purple Fish), 12
Murex Trunculus, 12
Night, Matching Shades by, 84
North Carolina Practice, 24
Perkin, Sir Wm. Henry, 40-43, 46, 108, 109
Perkin’s Discovery. See Perkin
Permanganate Bronze (Permanganate Brown, Bistre), 32-35
Peruvian Tied Work, 196
Philippine Tied Work, 196, 199-201
Primary Colors, 72, 73
Purpura Lapillus (Tyrian Purple Fish), 12
Raffia, Dyeing of, 120, 121
Rainbow Dyeing, 74, 75, 82, 83, 119-122, 129, 136
Rajput Tied Work (Chundries), 196-199, 202, 206
Resist Stencil Paste, 229-234
Resist Work, 194, 195, also 196-209, 229-234, 241-260
Rubber Gloves—Useful for Dyeing, 37
“Rubbing,” 101, 102
Rush, Dr. Benjamin, 211
Ruskin, John, Opinion on Modern Dyestuffs, 5
Safflower, 17, 55
Saffron, 10
Saffron, Indian (Turmeric), 17
Salt—used in Dyeing, 62, 87, 88, 107
Salt Colors (Direct Cotton Colors), 51, 55-71, 111, 175, 220, 237,
238-240;
List of Properties and Uses, 69
Sarongs, 243
Selected Dyestuffs, Lists of—
Acid Colors, 127, 152, 166;
Basic Colors, 114, 115, 149;
Salt Colors, 66;
Sulphur Colors, 90;
Vat Colors, 103, 179
Shades, Matching of, 81
Shikar, Chundries (Tied Work from India), 197
Silk, Artificial, 39, 87, 112, 181, 184-192
Silk, 156-181;
Dyeing, 58, 86, 87, 161-164, 174-181;
Imitation, 181-184;
Preparation of for Dyeing, 159-162;
Stencilling of, 219-223, 240;
Tests for Weighted, 173, 174;
Varieties of, 157-160;
Weighting of, 169-175;
Wild, 157-159, 164-167
Skein Dyeing 129, 130, 163
Soap, uses of, in Dyeing, 60, 61, 161-166, 171
Soda Ash (Sodium Carbonate), 27, 28, 88
Sodium Bicarbonate, 27, 28
Sodium Carbonate. See Soda Ash
Sodium Hydrosulphite, 35, 97, 98, 104, 105, 118, 209, 210, 237-241
Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda), 97, 105
Sodium Sulphate (Glauber’s Salt), 128
Sodium Sulphide, 85, 86, 88
Starching (for Feathers), 134-136
Stencils and Stencilling, 211-228, 228-241
Stencil Salt, 223, 224, 239
Stripping, 126, 137, 166, 167
Sulphur Colors, 85-90, 102, 111, 179, 180, 224, 237, 238
Tannin (Tannic Acid), 18, 30, 31, 145, 146, 171
Tanning, 143-148
Three-Color Shades, 79-81
Tied and Discharged Work, 208-211
Tied and Dyed Work, 31, 192-211
Ties and Stops, 214-217
Tin salts as Mordants, 11, 19
Tin Weighting of Silk, 171-175
Tjantings. See Batik, 244-254
“Topping,” 111
Turkey Red, 11, 22, 56, 57
Turkey Red Oil (Alizarine Assistant), 88, 106, 232
Turmeric (Indian Saffron), 17
Tussah Silk. See Wild Silk
Tyrian Purple, 12-16, 91
Vat Colors. See Indigo, also 102-108, 222-225
Vat Dyeing, 94-100, 178-180
Vegetable Colors, 8-11, 17-19, 20-25
Viscose (in Artificial Silk), 185, 186
Washing, Fastness to, 64-67, 89, 100, 103, 124, 125, 137, 166, 174-181
Weighting of Silk, 170-175
Woad, 9, 10
Wood, Dyeing of, 258
Wood, Etching of, by Batik Process, 259
Wool, Dyeing of, 58, 86, 128-131
Wool, Stencilling on, 221
Wringers, Use of in Dyeing, 38
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs
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The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
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Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
the text and consultation of external sources.
Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added,
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Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.
Pg 101: removed duplicate ‘to’ in ‘are apt to to “rub.”’.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75302 ***